This study examines the factors affecting the development of emerging capital marketsthe case of Nairobi Stock Exchange. The study covered the period 2005-2010 on all listed companies in NSE. However, despite various measures instituted by the government at different times, performance indicators show a relative poor performance of the NSE compared to other emerging stock markets. These include: low turnover ratio, low market capitalization to GDP ratio and low value of stock traded to GDP ratio. This study was therefore designed to identify factors affecting the development of emerging stock markets-The case of Nairobi Stock Exchange. A case study design was used at finding out the factors affecting the development of an emerging Capital market. However, descriptive and regression approach was used in data analysis and secondary data collection method was used. The study establishes both the external (macro economic and social cultural factors) and market (legal, regulatory and Institutional) factors which have constrained the development of the Stock Market. However, there are some variables which didn’t clearly show the above relationship, namely macroeconomic stability-inflation and private capital inflows. It can therefore be concluded that stock market development is determined by stock market liquidity, institutional quality, income per capita, domestic savings and bank development. Using the regression analysis, the study established that 85% of stock market development is determined by: stock market liquidity, institutional quality, income per capita, macroeconomic stability-inflation, domestic savings and private capital flows and bank development. The study recommends NSE needs to be developed further to enhance domestic resource mobilization. Various policies and programs that affect stock market development such as regulation of institutional investor and privatization need to be addressed. The policy makers should consider reducing impediments to stock market development by easing restrictions on international capital flows. NSE should play an increasingly educational role and CMA should also change its approach from heavy handed type to more productive.

Yam is a starchy tuberous crop that provides food and income to millions of people in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Despite its importance, several biotic and abiotic constraints beset yam production. Yam improvement by conventional breeding has been hampered by its polyploidy, heterozygosity, and vegetative propagation. Yam genetic improvement will therefore require the development of new techniques that allows direct manipulation of its genome. Targeted genome editing strategies such as zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs), transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats (CRISPR/Cas) system have proven that sequence-specific nucleases are effective tools for use in gene function analysis and crop improvement. Compared to ZFNs and TALENS, the CRISPR system holds more potential due to its simplicity, efficiency, versatility and affordability. Plant genome engineering, however, relies on transformation and regeneration for the recovery of mutants. The production of embryogenic callus is a crucial step in the regeneration of most crops. This study reports a system for CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing in yam. The conditions suitable for somatic embryogenesis, regeneration of friable embryogenic callus, and Agrobacterium mediated transformation of two yam species, D. alata and D. rotundata were determined. Further, a protocol for isolation, purification, and culture of D. rotundata protoplasts was established from mesophyll and callus tissues. Various factors, including tissue type, explant age, period of enzyme incubation, enzyme concentration, phytohormone combinations, concentration in the culture medium, were shown to influence the protoplast yield, viability, and regenerative capacity. Two guide RNAs targeting the yam phytoene desaturase (PDS) gene were designed, transfected onto a suitable plasmid to generate pCas9-gRNA-gfp-PDS, then to Agrobacterium strain EHA 105. The efficacy of the Cas9-gfp gene expression in yam was evaluated by agroinfiltration. An optimized agroinfiltration system was developed, consisting of the Agrobacterium strain EHA105 harboring pCas9_gRNA-PDS (OD600= 0.75), suspended in infiltration buffer supplemented with 400 μM acetosyringone, infiltered in fully expanded young leaves and heat shock treatment. The CRISPR/Cas9 plasmid was delivered to nodal explants through Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, and mutated events were regenerated by organogenesis. Transgene expression of the gfp tagged gene in these events was further confirmed by GFP fluorescence under UV light. Eight events were regenerated, among which one was green, while seven showed phenotypes of complete to variegated albinism. Leaves of transgenic plants emitted a bright fluorescence, while wild-type plants did not emit any fluorescence. All putative transgenic plants contained Cas9, as confirmed by PCR analysis. All seven mutant events showed indels at both gRNA1 and gRNA2 within 3-4 bp upstream of the PAM sequences. The indels consisted of a mixture of insertions, deletions, and substitutions of 1 to 59 base pairs. As expected, the green plant showed no mutation at either target site. The genome-editing efficiency was 83.3%. The yam regeneration, genetic transformation, and genome editing protocols developed in this study will provide opportunities for yam improvement. Overall, these results demonstrated that the CRISPR/Cas9 system can induce site-specific disruption of the PDS gene and generate stable phenotypic changes in yam. The findings reported herein offer new frontiers for gene function analysis and direct manipulation of the yam genome.

The purpose of the study was to examine the management of the challenges facing Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) operating within Nairobi Central Business District. The study also sought to find out the following: a) the approaches that can be adopted to address these challenges, b) the relationship between gender and the challenges facing SMEs and c) the relationship between education level and the tendency to seek financial assistance. The study employed survey research design. The sample was picked from all business categories and business entrepreneurs (either business owners or employees in-charge) in Nairobi Central Business District. Cluster simple random and purposive sampling procedures were used to arrive at a sample of thirty eight (38) businesses and seventy six (76) entrepreneurs. Questionnaire method was used to collect data. The Data was analysed using descriptive statistics, employing quantitative approach. From the analysis, the study revealed the following: The most pressing challenges facing enterprises in Nairobi Central Business District according to the majority of the entrepreneurs included lack of credit (88.2%), security concerns (86.8%) and unfriendly legal and regulatory environment (84.2%). Further, the study revealed that there is no one time answer to the SMEs‟ problem. There are as many approaches to SMEs‟ problem as there are challenges. The study recommends that various stakeholders in the banking industry to work together, especially setting up inter-bank financing to pool money to be invested in SMEs. Further, policy makers should review the legal, tax and regulatory framework to ensure that it encourages the development of venture capital essential for the growth of SMEs.

Public healthcare institutions in Kenya, including Kenyatta National Hospital, have been characterized by change management failure and poor customer satisfaction. Success of strategic change in other industries has been linked to management training. This study therefore sought to establish challenges facing strategic change management at Kenyatta National Hospital and to establish the role of management training in overcoming these challenges. This was a case study employing qualitative data. Data was collected through interviews with the Chief Executive Officer and his two deputies, the Human Resources Manager and two randomly selected heads of departments. Analysis was then done using content analysis and data presented in a descriptive format. The challenges facing strategic change at the hospital were poor government support, lack of finances, reluctance of staff and resistance to change. Lack of management skills and business acumen among workers was also reported as a challenge. All the respondents stated that some aspects of these challenges could be overcome by management training. Some of the reasons provided for this response were that workers find it difficult to understand the rationale and process of change. Some also added that highly trained and specialized personnel find it difficult to understand why they have to be involved in change processes. Creation of harmony in the unique setting of a hospital was also difficult without management training. At the operation level, training was deemed necessary in order to educate on quality service delivery, work layout and customer satisfaction. There were hardly any reported changes that were not attributable to management training. Indeed, the estimated extent to which every respondent thought that management training could help overcome challenges at the hospital was over 50%. The respondents suggested that management training could be offered in seminars, hiring of managers with a management background and learning from others. Some of the issues that could be addressed through training were provided as leading strategic change, quality service provision and improving working relations. Thus, there exist pertinent challenges facing strategic change at Kenyatta National Hospital. The respondents in this study view management training as likely to play a major role in overcoming these challenges. It may therefore be necessary to institute management training in this hospital and other public healthcare institutions in Kenya. This may partly provide a solution to the continuing failure of change management strategies.

In Kenya, guava (Psidium guajava L.) is a neglected nutrient-dense fruit that grows from randomly dispersed seeds. Despite being highly nutritious, the industrial processing of the fruits is non-existent in the country, with limited traditional and household processing. The goal of this study was to document the current trends in the production, postharvest handling, utilization, processing, and marketing of locally produced guava fruits, as well as to evaluate standardized processing techniques of the local varieties into nutrient-rich nectars. A mixed-methods study design employing qualitative and quantitative approaches was adopted whereby desk reviews followed by a cross-sectional baseline survey on the status quo of the guava value chain Taita Taveta and Kitui Counties of Kenya (n=417) were conducted. Experimental study designs involving completely randomized designs, factorial designs, and comparative analysis were used to evaluate the physicochemical and processing qualities of Kenyan guava varieties, effects of pulping methods on the physicochemical properties of guava pulp, differences in the physicochemical properties of commercially traded nectars, and the effects of blending guava nectars with moringa leaf extract on their acceptability, nutritional profile, and shelf stability. The results indicate that the crop is highly neglected with limited postharvest handling and preservation, leading to high losses among approximately 77 % of households interviewed. Although the country's annual production exceeds 11 Metric tons, estimated to be worth $ 1.1 million, most yearly produce (84 %) is from sprouts of wild seeds, with red- and white-fleshed varieties growing in 97% and 49 % of the households, respectively. Minimal incomes were realized annually ($ 0.5-400) among homes that sell fresh fruits (30%) due to low farm gate prices of $ 0.08 – 0.10. Guava processing was limited, and only 3% of households reportedly processed guavas due to a lack of value addition techniques (75%) and appropriate processing equipment (66%). xxv The physicochemical characterization of the guavas indicated significantly (p=0.008) wide intra- and inter-fruit variations among the red-fleshed, white-fleshed, and strawberry guavas. Physically, the fruits' length, diameter, and weight varied with the average pulp to seed ratio significantly (p=0.026) higher in the red guava than in the white and strawberry guavas, at 31.2, 17.8, and 12.1, respectively. The strawberry guava levels of vitamin C were low and averaged 164.11±11.85mg100-1g dry weight (d.w) compared to the white guava's 1665.56±126.50 mg100-1g d.w. The white-fleshed guavas were limiting (p=0.0001) in β-carotenes (0.04±0.06 mg100-1g d.w) in comparison to the strawberry guava’s (1.55±0.30 mg100-1g d.w). The red-fleshed guava had significantly (p=0.014) high levels of total phenolics (1649.14±329.70 mgGAE per 100-1g d.w) and antioxidant activities (1989.14± 383.47 μMTE 100-1g d.w). The red-fleshed guava significantly (p<0.05) outperformed the white in all key aspects -micronutrients and phytochemical composition (except for vitamin C) and would therefore be the most ideal for processing given its resilience and adaptation across various agro-ecological zones. The effect of pulping methods on the quality of white- and red-fleshed guavas showed that although hot extraction methods resulted in significantly (p=0.001) high yield (67 -77%) as compared to the cold (62 – 72 %), there were no significant (p=0.0619) differences in the moisture loss during pasteurization, averaging 2.59±5.41 –5.1±2.6%. However, the vitamin C losses were significant (p=0.001), with up to 60% and 64% of the white and red guavas lost respectively. The cold extraction method resulted in significantly (p<0.05) better retention of the vitamin β-carotene (1.9±0.4mg), zinc (5.6±2.1mg), iron (20.1±8.6mg), calcium (19.2±4.2 mg), flavonoids (241.3±56 mgCE), phenolics (1548.7±25.8 mg GAE) and antioxidant activities (1998.6±333μMTE) per 100g. xxvi The consumers clearly distinguished formulated guava nectars based on a minimum of 25% of red-fleshed guava pulp and blended nectars with 12.5 - 20% Moringa oleifera leaf juice extract inclusion. The formulations' mouthfeel had the highest discriminating power (test power 3.94, p=0.0004), differentiating the nectars. Inclusion of moringa leaf extract up to 12.5% resulted in fairly similar overall acceptability as the unblended nectars at 5.9±0.8 and 5.3±0.9, respectively. The moringa leaf extract significantly (p<0.05) resulted in high zinc (4.62±2.14 mg100-1g), iron (28.87±6.21mg100-1g), potassium (87.4±5.3mg100-1g), vitamin C (574.2±116.2 mg100-1g), β-carotene (0.34±0.03 mg100-1g), flavonoids (217.0±18.8 mgCE100-1g), phenolics (1934.8±198.3mgGAE100-1g), and antioxidant activity (1934.8±198.3 μMTE 100-1g) compared to the unblended nectars. The most acceptable nectars would be shelf-stable for at least five months regardless of the packaging type, blending, or length of storage with significant (p=0.000) changes in the TSS, pH, and the TTA. The yeast and molds (<10cfu/g) and the TVCs (<10 cfu/ml) did not surpass the maximum allowable limits of 30 and 100 cfu/ml, respectively. However, considerable (p<0.0001) color deterioration was observed, notably in nectars packaged in transparent packaging. Despite variations in Kenyan guava varieties, the fruits are nutrient-dense, with high annual losses due to limited processing and thus a lack of guava products made from the local fruits. However, this study demonstrated that adopting processing techniques for the red-fleshed guava, which have superior nutritional and processing qualities, at the household and small-scale levels would result in nutrient-enriched guava nectars, which could aid in strengthening the guava value chains by improving guava farmers' livelihoods and consumer access to processed fruits when they are out of season.

Increasing the low potato productivity due to declining soil fertility in Kenya requires an understanding of fertility status and potato response to site-specific fertilizer formulations. This study was conducted in central Kenya highland; Meru and Nyandarua regions with the objectives as follows: i) identify limiting nutrients to potato production ii) determine response to the addition of the limiting nutrients, and iii) evaluate the effect of potato fertilizer blend(s) on yield of the potato crop. Soil and potato nutrient content were determined using inductively coupled plasmaoptical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) procedures and grouped into adequacy levels. Leaf area index (LAI) and aboveground biomass were determined during flowering and tuber bulking growth stages from the experimental trial. Tuber yields were determined during the bulking stage and at full maturity. Harvest index and nutrient use efficiency were estimated for the experimental trials. Cluster and factor analyses were performed on survey data while generalized linear models were used for data from the field trials using R software version 2.2.3. Means were separated using Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD) at (p ≤ 0.05). Pearson correlation and linear regression analyses were applied to determine the relationship between the measured variables. Soils from both Meru and Nyandarua with nutrient contents below critical levels constituted 66% and 20% for N, 46% and 85% for P, 67% and 31% for S, 9% and 51% for Cu, and 87% and 80% for B respectively. Subsequently, low tissue nutrient concentrations were observed for N, P, K, and S elements. A reduction in potato yields was observed when specific nutrients were omitted as follows; 9 t ha-1 when N was omitted and 3 t ha-1 when P was omitted. DAP fertilizer exerted the most significant effect on potato haulm (16 g plant-1 ) on the variety Sherekea. The effect was also observed on potato yield in which 29.2 t ha-1 was recorded with DAP, and a yield of 26.6 t ha-1 with the application of new Mavuno on variety Sherekea. A significant positive interaction (P <0.05) between fertilizer type and soil type was observed. Fertilizers had a significant effect on the agronomic efficiency of N (AEN), P (AEP), and K (AEK). These results show that N, P, K, S and B are the nutrients limiting potato productivity in central Kenya and their fortification would depend on specific soil nutrient requirements and associated applications.

The Kenya’s agriculture sector is key for rural livelihoods though highly impacted by climate change. The agriculture is mostly rainfed and dominated by smallholder farmers which increases vulnerability to climate variability and change impacts. There is need to enhance farmers’ resilience to climate change as well as strengthen their adaptive capacity through transition to sustainable farming practices. The overall objective of this study was to investigate selected climate-smart agriculture (CSA) options that can be integrated in smallholder farming systems for enhanced resilience and food security in Yatta sub-County, Machakos County. The study sought to establish rainfall and temperature trends during the analysis period (1983-2014) and relate the trends with crop yield to determine their relationship. The study investigated farmers’ perceptions to climate change and variability and the on-farm adaptation strategies they had adopted. Based on the climate trends and farmers’ perceptions of climate change the study sought to integrate selected climate-smart agriculture (CSA) models (conservation agriculture and Zai pits) into farmers’ practices to evaluate the impact of the models on crop yield in comparison to conventional farming practice. The study adopted a mixed methodology approach which integrated qualitative and quantitative research methods. Both primary and secondary data was used. Primary data was obtained using structured questionnaire, focus group discussions and experiments while secondary data (climate and crop) was obtained from existing databases. Climatic data were analyzed using descriptive and trend analysis. Detection of statistically significant climate trends was done using parametric (linear regression) and non-parametric (Mann-Kendall test), standard precipitation index and moving averages. Multiple regression model was used to analyze relationship between crop yield and climate variables. The data from the questionnaire was analyzed using descriptive and chi-square statistics. Quantitative statistics were used to analyze the experimental data using analysis of variance. The Mann-Kendall test revealed statistically significant (P<0.05) trends for the annual and seasonal rainfall. The linear regression showed increasing trends in annual temperature which supported farmers’ perceptions with majority farmers reporting increasing daytime temperatures (79%) and number of hot days (65%) over the last five years. However, the regression analysis showed increasing rainfall trends contrary to farmers’ perceptions of decreasing seasonal and annual rainfall trends Annual-monthly rainfall variation showed a bimodal rainfall with two distinct rainfall seasons in a year, however the monthly rainfall trends were not statistically significant (P>0.05. There was a significant direct correlation between crop yield and rainfall and temperature trends. Although farmers had adopted several on-farm adaptation strategies, the adoption levels remained low. Water management strategies (water conservation and water harvesting) recorded higher adoption rates of 62.71% and 53.95% respectively. The tested CSA options proved their potential towards increasing crop yield in comparison to the conventional practices. The occurrence of climate change events in the study area has affected agriculture productivity, food security and socio-economic status of the households. Integration of the CSA into smallholder farming systems is a viable option towards attaining food security and increased resilience to CC impacts.

The purpose of this study was to establish the extent to which Clearing and Forwarding agents in Nairobi have adopted Customs Electronic Procedures. Specific objectives were to determine the extent to which Clearing and Forwarding agents have adopted Customs Electronic Procedures; identify the challenges of adopting Customs Electronic procedures as well as establish how the adoption of Customs Electronic Procedures has facilitated trade. This study used a descriptive survey method, in finding out how electronic lodgment of Customs entries affects trade facilitation. The target population of this research consisted of 350 clearing and forwarding firms based in Nairobi out of the 962 licensed in Kenya. This study used stratified sampling technique, which was appropriate in coming up with a sample for the study. This is because the population to be studied is heterogeneous. Stratified random sampling technique was considered for each clearing and forwarding company, since each company is unique with its own characteristics. The researcher used both primary and secondary sources of information to collect the data. The secondary data was obtained from company profiles and records from Customs department. Primary sources entailed the use of semi-structured questionnaires comprising of both open-ended and closed-ended questions completed by target respondents in the clearing and forwarding sector of the economy. The data collected from the field was both qualitative and quantitative. The data was then checked for consistency, completeness and usefulness. This entailed edits in the field, data results validation and central editing. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. vi The study revealed that Customs electronic procedures have a great impact on the organizations. They have been forced to have an IT system with internet connectivity. Customs electronic procedures were found to have drastically reduced the average lodgment time, as well the clearance time and lodgment cost. Customs customer service was also found to have improved. The main challenges experienced in adopting Customs electronic procedures was found to be inadequacy of relevant skills to sustain the system, financial constraints and unfriendliness of the system. On areas that need improvement, most respondents cited infrastructure in order to reduce down time and inaccessibility.

Access to public healthcare is necessary because it improves the general well-being and productivity of a people, and is good for sustainable development. However, despite the fact that access to public healthcare is arguably cheaper compared to private facilities and allows for early diagnosis and management of physical, psychological, and societal illnesses, and is thus critical for people's overall health, its access has been worrying especially in Kenya. This study is an inquiry into the influence of social class on access to public healthcare in Kenya, a case study of Nairobi City County. To support this inquiry, intervening variables (demographic, socio-cultural and institutional) were used to investigate the relationships between social class and access to public healthcare. The study was based on households in were used to explain causal links between the two variables (independent variable-Social Class and Dependent variable-Access to Public Healthcare. The study employed descriptive and longitudinal research design. A multistage random sampling technique was employed to arrive at a sample size of 1066. The study employed both primary and secondary data sources. Semi-structured questionnaire and an interview guide were used to collect data. The study employed drop and pick later method for the questionnaire data collection while face-to-face interview was used to respond to interview guide questions. Cross tabulation analysis was done between each independent variable indicator and dependent variable, access to public healthcare. The results were presented in frequency distribution tables and correlation results for each item in the questionnaire. With regards to the qualitative data from the interview guide, content analysis was employed. The research findings confirmed robust positive correlations between independent and dependent variables. Using hypothetical variables (intervening variables), the study found that demographic variables (age, income, education, marriage, wealth, place of residence); socio-cultural variables (like inability to communicate in national languages, individual perception of public healthcare facilities, cultural practices, strict faith and attitude, social capital and poverty); and institutional variables (policies, limited health financing by the government, infrastructure, adequate and balanced distribution of health workers; few health facilities and poor distribution of health commodities and equipment; lack of basic amenities like water and sanitation; lack of citizen participation among others) explain the causal links between the independent and dependent variables. Hypothetical variables explain the causal links between the two variables(independent variable and dependent variable). The study concluded that an increase in the explanatory power of demographic variables like increased level of education and income of the citizens could help find durable solutions, hence, lead to more access to public healthcare services; Further, increased explanatory power of the intervening variables socio-cultural variables like social networks, capital, attitude and perception of health facilities could help provide solutions that could result to increased access of public healthcare. And furthermore, increases explanatory power of institutional variables (e.g. increase in financing, adequate and equitable distribution of health workers; availability of medical drugs and equipment; access to basic amenities (water and sanitation, increase in public participation could help explain the relationship between the two variables, and find solutions to can lead to increased access to public healthcare.At a policy level, the study therefore recommended that the government should use such knowledge to increase opportunities in demographic, socio-cultural and institutional factors in order for access to public healthcare to increase, especially among the poor households in the city county.At an academic level, more research should be conducted to establish why intervening variables do not explain adequately the causal relationship between the intervening variable and dependent variable. This constitutes a knowledge gap that is necessary to provide solutions in increasing access to public healthcare.

In the highly demanding business world today, an organization’s competitive edge almost wholly depends on how well it can manage and deploy its corporate assets. These assets can be categorized into tangible and intangible assets. Traditionally, tangible assets like plant, equipment, inventory and financial capital are considered the most fundamental corporate assets. Intangible assets play a very little or vague role in any organization regardless from which industry it comes from (Vorbeck, Heisig, Martin & Schutt, 2001). Generally, many organizations until today still downplay the importance of their intangible assets. However, despite managing and giving prime focus to all their tangible assets, organizations are still finding it very hard to gain the advantage to beat their competitors. Eventually, organizations have found out that tangible assets can only help them to a certain extent. It is now becoming clearer that organizations require a much broader range of resources to be able to compete and succeed in the current competitive market. This is shown by an increasing number of organizations giving more emphasis to their intangible assets, which was mostly left idle, unexplored and unmanage.