Dairy production in East Africa is dominated by the smallholder production system, characterized by suboptimal milk production attributed to poor nutrition. Grain-based concentrates can be used to cover the energy and protein deficits arising from forage feeding in rain-fed systems, but this strategy is constrained by grain competition with human and monogastric animals such as poultry, making these feeds very expensive. Sweet potato can serve both as a source of human food (tuber) and animal feed (vines). The objectives of this study were; 1) to determine the effect of harvesting regime on DM yield and nutrient content of sweet potato variety SPK 013, Kenspot 1 and SPK 117, 2) to determine the effect of amount of molasses and storage period on silage quality of sweet potato vines from the three sweet potato varieties, 3) to assess effect of supplementing lactating dairy cows on Napier grass basal diet with sweet potato vine silage on dry matter intake, milk production, milk composition, 4) assessing the economic benefit of feeding sweet potato vines silage as an alternative protein supplement. The biomass yield of three new orange-fleshed dual-purpose sweet potato varieties were assessed under different harvesting regimes. The three varieties were chosen because they were newly introduced into the market as dual-purpose varieties. The vines were harvested either at intermediate stage (75 days) and again at final stage (150 days) (INT) or at final stage only (150 days) (FIN). Of the three varieties tested, Cultivar SPK013 yielded the most vine in both treatments (7.3 and 5.6 t DM/ha for INT (75 and150 days) and FIN respectively) and tuber at FIN (2 t DM/ha), but lowest tuber yield at INT (0.8 t DM/ha. The intermediate harvesting increased vine yield for all varieties (3.6 vs 2.3, 7.3 vs 5.6 and 5.0 vs 4.2 for INT vs FIN for variety Kenspot1, SPK013 and SOK117 respectively). For cultivar SPK013, intermediate harvesting resulted in a 58% decline in tuber yield (2.0 t DM/ha to 0.8t DM/ha) (p<0.05). Vines from the three varieties were mixed with three amounts of molasses (0, 20 and 40g of molasses/ Kg of vines), and ensiled for 7, 14, 21, 28 and 56 days. The pH and CP content of the silage were monitored. The pH of 0% molasses amount was the highest (4.56) but had the lowest CP (16.25%). Ensilage period significantly affected the quality of silage with CP decreasing from 19.54 to 15.62% at 56d of storage. From the study, molasses amount of 20g per Kg of vines was recommended for both short term and long-term storage. The efficacy of sweet potato vine silage plus wheat bran (SPVSWB) as a low-cost supplement compared to grain-based commercial dairy concentrate (CDC) was assessed. Multiparous Holstein–Friesian cattle (n = 12) were fed on a basal diet of Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum cv. South Africa) ad libitum, plus a fixed amount of either SPVSWB or CDC, (the ration formulated to be both iso-nitrogenous and iso-caloric) during late (LL) and early (EL) lactation. Daily milk yield was not significantly different (p>0.05) between SPVSWB and CDC groups during both LL (6.2 vs 7.5 L/day) and EL (14.2 vs 16.0 L/day). However, the lower cost of production for SPVSWB (23.2 vs 48.7 KES/Kg DM) resulted in margins on milk income over feed (per cow per day) being greater for SPVSWB in both periods (LL: 71 vs 14.5; and EL: 426 vs 400 KES/day). Despite SPVSWB eliciting lower milk production (LL 6.2 and EL14.2 L/day) than CDC (LL7.5 and EL 16.0 L/day), SPVSWB is a cost-effective, accessible alternative to grain-based supplementation in small-holder dairy-farming systems of Kenya. The study recommended 2% inclusion of molasses when making sweet potato vine silage. The silage can be fed in combination with other by-products, for moderate milk production which will result to a lower cost of supplementation compared conventional grain-based supplementation.

Cooperatives provide the institutional infrastructure upon which both the poor and the middle class organize themselves socially, economically, culturally and politically. Saccos have been identified as one of the drivers to millennium development goals and the 2030 vision. Cooperative sector; especially Sacco sub-sector, has experienced increase in competition for business and customers. This development has brought about an environment in which survival of the SACCOs will depend on the ability to effectively compete in the market. Development of market driven products and ability to beat completion is most crucial for survival of Saccos. Segmentation will allow the Saccos understanding of customers to better satisfy their needs and compete effectively in the market. This project studied the segmentation in the Saccos with an aim of achieving marketing concept. It was focused on Mwalimu National Sacco to establish the various segments of the Sacco members and their financial requirements. The research design used was descriptive in nature and the population of interest was Mwalimu SACO members from Nairobi region. Primary data was collected using selfadministered questionnaires. Data collected was analysed using descriptive statistics. The study findings indicated that Mwalimu National Sacco members can be segmented on demographic, psychographic and behavioural bases. The segments have unique financial services requirement. Limitation of the study arose mainly due to the time limit that made it impossible to reach all the targeted respondents.

Governance is about achieving corporate goals. For most MFIs, dual goals exist i.e. the social and economic perspectives. Good governance involves effective guidance of the board of MFIs to manage the management team by implementing the regulatory framework of the Microfinance Act of 2006 and developing systems and procedures. The regulators in Kenya have provided a clear directive which focuses on governance and management by introducing strict licensing and minimum capital requirements; capital adequacy rules; fiduciary responsibilities and standards regarding owners, directors and executive managers of MFIs; providing guidelines on risk management and related policies. Despite the efforts of the regulators, many of the MFIs have given very little attention to corporate governance and risk management, which affects their entire performance. MFIs face problems related with governance, emanating from internal and external factors that threaten their operational and financial sustainability. This study established that most stakeholders are outsiders. This study recommends that a competent and motivated board together with institutional capacity is critical to advancing CG in the microfinance sector.

Degradation of sub catchments has been a major global challenge. Kenya has experienced a similar situation in spite of water sector reforms of 2002 that assigned every wetland to a sub catchment, separated water service delivery from water resources management and decentralized management of water resources. This study was carried out in Rwamuthambi sub catchment with an aim to assess the status of governance, effectiveness and challenges of WRUA committees and explore indicators and strategies involved for sustainable utilization that would curb experienced degradation even after the reforms. The study employed exploratory descriptive research design. Data was collected through questionnaires, semi-structured interview augmented by observations and review of secondary data. Data analyses was by Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (W) for ranking, t-test for ratings, Chi square, regression analysis and descriptive analysis using Stata and excel software. The results revealed that only 15% of WRUA committee members understood water resources management while 35% were aware of relevant legislations. The study found that 82% of the community members were involved in sub catchment utilization activities. In addition, degradation had no significant association with existence of WRUAs χ2 (4, N=180), p< .01, and WRUA contributions were perceived differently per agro-ecological zone χ2 (8, N=147), p>.05. The level of household incomes influenced level of sub catchment conservation and sensitization (p< 0.05), enforcement had a significant positive influence (p< 0.05) to the economy and environment components and community involvement and community initiative had a strong significant influence (p< 0.05) on utilization and sustainability. Further, there was significant agreement by the community regarding wetland government support services (W = 0.05, p<.05). Challenges unearthed included inadequate financial and human resources, lack of understanding, poor collaborative governance, inadequate support from county government and private tenure of v riparian land reserve. The study improved the framework to monitor and communicate the effects of sustainability indicators. It was recommended that for effective conservation of wetlands, WRUAs should embrace collaborative governance and pursue integration of sub catchment management plan with county land use plans through policy review. Further, since conservation was revealed as a function of utilization the study also recommended a systematic follow-up the tipping point of utilization-driven conservation.

Chrome tanning is the most popular form of tannage worldwide due to the superior quality and versatility of the resultant leather compared to all other leather tanning materials. However, waste emanating from the production of chrome-tanned leather causes enormous disposal problems to human health and the environment due to the toxicity of chromium particularly in its hexavalent oxidation state. Besides, efforts to treat this type of leather waste either for chromium recovery, or for obtaining chrome-free collagen, have not been entirely successful for a number of reasons as investigated in this thesis. Thus, the current study assessed the amount of chrome leather waste generated by six selected tanneries operating in Kenya and mode of disposal of the waste. The assessment of leather waste generated in the six selected tanneries was done through a survey in which semi-structured questionnaires and key informant interviews were used as the instruments of data collection. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data collected in this study, and the analysis showed that 1,443,000kg of chromium-containing leather waste was generated by the 6 selected tanneries within a period of one month. This analysis further showed that out of the total amount of various types of leather solid wastes generated within one month in the selected tanneries, which was 2,112,560kg, 68.3% of this amount was actually chrometanned leather waste. The study also, established that the common methods of disposal of leather solid wastes at that time were; landfilling, open ground dumping and or incineration. In addition, the study developed a new eco-friendly and cost-effective method for dechroming leather waste and modified the waste to enable its utilization as a slow-release organic fertilizer. The new method involved detanning, chromium extraction and complexation of the remaining traces of chromium with potassium oxalate. The method was able to extract up to 99.9% of chromium from the waste in 24 hours. The dechromed waste was subjected to mild phosphoric xviii acid hydrolysis to enhance controlled breakdown of peptide bonds in collagen to facilitate release of nitrogen and other nutrients, making them available for plant use. The collagen hydrolysate was modified further to make it more useful as a slow-release nitrogen fertilizer by treating it with 99% epichlorohydrin (EPICH). The modified collagen had 44% N, 21% P (as P2O5), 0.1% K (as K2O), 0.2% Mg, and 1.8% Ca, 27.0% TOC and C:N ratio of 0.61. The slowrelease organic fertilizer was formulated using modified collagen and ground maize cobs as filler material. The maize cob based filler material was found to have high carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) with the following nutrient composition: 2.8% N, 14.04% P (as P2O5), 0.3% K (as K2O), 7.5% Mg, and 1.6% Ca, 38.12% TOC and C:N ratio of 13.61. The high C:N ratio contributed to the slow release of organic nitrogen into the soil in form of nutrients by slowing down the decomposition of the organic fertilizer to enable the release of nutrients at a rate that matches plant requirements. Besides, the filler contributed to the nutrient content of the new fertilizer. This study also, assessed the N mineralization rate of the new fertilizer formulation in a laboratory soil incubation experiment to determine the rate at which inorganic nitrogen is obtained by decomposition of organic matter and degradation of organic nitrogenous compounds in the organic fertilizer, making it bioavailable for use by plants following fertilizer application to the soil. The highest mineralization rate of organic N into NO3-N was observed during the 12th week, and the one of organic N into NH4 + -N was observed during the 16th week of incubation. Results of single application of the new fertilizer formulation during planting (under greenhouse fertilizer trials) were subjected to ANOVA using Genstat 14th edition at 95% confidence interval (CI), and indicated that growth and productivity (yield) of kale and capsicum were comparable with the use of DAP and CAN conventional fertilizers during planting and top-dressing time, respectively. Application of the new fertilizer in growth and productivity of maize did not show xix favourable results. However, use of different rates of this new fertilizer showed a significant difference (P < 0.05) on mean height of the maize stalk and chlorophyll content. The new fertilizer formulation (if applied at optimal rates), as found out in this study, was significantly better than DAP and CAN conventional fertilizers, particularly in terms of increasing chlorophyll content and number of leaves per capsicum plant. However, mean fruit yield and whole plant biomass for the capsicum crop under various fertilizer treatments did not show any significant difference (P > 0.05). The optimal rate of application for the new fertilizer formulation was 1238.50kg/ha fertilizer blended with 530.79kg/ha filler in enhancing growth and productivity of capsicum, while the optimal application rate of the new fertilizer toe enhance growth and productivity of kale was either 884.64kg/ha fertilizer blended with 884.64kg/ha filler or 1769.28kg/ha fertilizer without filler. The study concluded that chrome leather waste can efficiently be dechromed using the new method described in this study and the resulting chrome free waste can be modified using 99% EPICH to make a useful organic fertilizer. Large-scale production of the new organic fertilizer will reduce disposal to the environment of chrome leather waste that usually causes environmental pollution. The study recommends up-scaling and optimization of the new leather wastes dechroming and collagen modification methods described in this study for large-scale decontamination of chrome leather waste and commercial production of the new slow-release organic fertilizer. In addition, the study recommends addition of potassium rich supplements to the organic fertilizer to boost its potassium levels, as well as test the suitability of the new fertilizer for use to grow various other types of crops.

In the current era of globalization, industries are adopting new tools and techniques to produce goods to compete and survive in the market. The most daunting issue faced by manufacturers today is how to deliver their products or materials quickly at low cost and good quality. One promising method for addressing this issue is the application of lean manufacturing tools and techniques. This research project examined the extent to which lean manufacturing tools and techniques are implemented by sugar manufacturing companies in Kenya, their impact on factory time efficiency and obstacles faced in the implementation process. The motivation of the study was based on the contribution of the sugar sector in the Kenyan economy. The study was a census survey covering the eight sugar manufacturing companies registered by Kenya Sugar Board and those which have been in operation for more than three years. Data was collected from 150 employees in production, engineering and quality assurance departments of the eight sugar manufacturing companies using a structured questionnaire consisting mainly of closed-ended questions. The data collected was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The research revealed that companies in the sugar sector in Kenya have not given attention to all the key areas of lean manufacturing from a holistic perspective instead a piecemeal approach has been adopted. Conclusions drawn from the research was that the sugar manufacturing companies in Kenya lack understanding of lean manufacturing concepts and have therefore not reaped the full benefits of lean implementation.

Many public institutions in the world have experienced challenges in their organisational efficiency with a significant part of these challenges arising from the performance of employees. In Puntland parliament, strategic plan was adopted in 2014 with an aim of fostering organisational efficiency and despite the efforts, challenges remain, therefore this study aimed at evaluating the effect of performance appraisal system on organisational efficiency in Puntland Parliament. The explicit objectives were; to assess the effect of appraisal techniques on organizational efficiency at Puntland State Parliament, to evaluate the effect of performance feedback on organizational efficiency at Puntland State Parliament and to establish the effect of employee’s attitude on organizational efficiency at Puntland State Parliament. The study was guided by the goal setting theory of motivation. A case study research design was used and targeted a population of 159 comprising 66 members of parliament and 93 members of staff. The sample size was 80 constituting 33 members of parliament and 47 members of staff. The collection of data was done through questionnaires. The responses rate was 60%. The results from the regression analysis and hypothesis testing revealed that there is a positive and significant relationship between appraisal techniques and organisational efficiency. This is based on the regression coefficient of 0.314 and p value of 0.031. From the regression output and hypothesis tests there is a positive and significant link between performance feedback and organizational efficiency based on p value of 0.001 and regression coefficient of 0.494. From the regression output and hypothesis tests there is a positive and significant relationship between employee attitude and organizational efficiency based on p value of 0.000 and regression coefficient of 0.947. The study therefore recommends that that the institution should focus more on ways of improving the employee attitudes through forums and participatory leadership in addition to the reward system that is already in place. Through trainings the employee attitudes can be enhanced by way of equipping them with skills and adequate knowledge that will positively build their attitudes towards their functions. The study recommends that in addition to yearly feedbacks, the institution should introduce periodic feedback system where the employees are given feedback on the progress of their performance on continuous basis to ensure that they are on track. The study recommends that the performance appraisal system be improved to not only comprise actual verse targeted results but should take into consideration employee attributes like their behaviours. On the basis of the results from the study, appraisal techniques, performance feedback and employee attitude account for 73% of the changes in the organizational efficiency. Future studies may be done on the other factors that influence organizational efficiency in Puntland parliament. Further future studies should also be done on other public institutions in Somalia in relation to the nexus between performance appraisal system and organizational efficiency.

The multifaceted existence of threats to state security has posed a major challenge to states' strategic posture in Africa. This very dynamic environment has brought with it complex and ever evolving security implications for states. Diplomatic and military means therefore can be viewed as some of the means by which states pursue global and regional security using a mixture of policies and non-policy means. African states have struggled to develop effective security arrangements at the regional level. The main objective of this study is to examine the role of defense diplomacy in enhancing regional stability in Africa with a focus on the Kenya Defense Forces. The study examines the trends in respect to defense diplomacy as an enabler of global peace and security, assesses the role of defense diplomacy in enhancing regional stability in Africa and analyzes the challenges and future prospects of securing Africa through defense diplomacy. The study is informed by the neo-liberalism theory. The study uses both qualitative and quantitative research designs including both primary and secondary data. The research paper establishes that defense diplomacy is gaining ground in Africa with gradual but steady adoption being noted. The utilization of defence diplomacy is evident through bilateral and multilateral partnerships as well as through cooperation agreements. Defence diplomacy is associated with western countries and attached to the idea of colonial masters “keeping in touch” with their former colonies. The research paper also establishes that defense diplomacy plays a key role in fostering unity through regional institutions and organizations in Africa. Through avenues such as joint military training, sports, exchange programs, defense attaches and peace keeping missions, African states are moving towards full utility of defense diplomacy to secure the continent. Further, the study establishes that the complete operationalization of defense diplomacy faces challenges including unclear link between the objectives, means and ends, loopholes in policies, limited fitting of country legislation into regional defense policies, lack of a single conceptualization of defense diplomacy, limited resources and self-interests among African nations who want to forge their own defense policies. In view of the future prospects of using defense diplomacy to secure Africa, it is noted that strengthening of multilateral and bilateral institutions, incorporation of members of the public and diverse constituencies in decision making and capitalizing on communication especially digital communication would give defence diplomacy more mileage. In addition, maximizing on the ideology of the “African solutions to African problems” would place defense diplomacy at a vantage point to take over defence in Africa.

Recently there has been a growing interest in the use of corporate venturing as a means for corporations to enhance the innovative abilities of their employees and, at the same time, increase corporate success through the creation of new corporate ventures. However, the creation of corporate activity is difficult since it involves radically changing internal organizational behaviour patterns. The objective of this study was to determine the integration of corporate venture in strategic management in the Kenya Wildlife Service. In undertaking the study, employees of the KWS were considered. Data was collected by use of questionnaires reinforced by personal visits and telephone calls. A total of 70 questionnaires were distributed to the employees. Out of these, 53 responded by completing and returning the questionnaires. Research findings revealed that corporate venture was well integrated with strategic management as was evidenced by the integration of innovation and creativity as one of the objectives in the organization balance score card. From the findings, it was concluded that the major challenge faced in implementing corporate venture at the Kenya wildlife service was limited financial resources for research and development and luck of training on corporate venture. Arising from the findings, it was recommended that the organization’s management should emphasis and support strong corporate venture by training employees on corporate venturing as a way of creating the organizations wealth and collaborate with the government to obtain funding for Research and Development.

The scarcity of water in semi-arid area of Kiboko, Makindu sub-county is a major contributor tolow maize yield beside climate change due to little and unreliable rainfall. Regulated deficit irrigation is a water management technique that improves water use efficiency to obtainminimal yield and irrigation cost benefit. An experiment was carried out for two seasons in Kiboko, Makindu Sub-County during 2018 and 2019 short and long rains, respectively to evaluate the response of maize growth and yield to regulated deficit irrigation in semi-arid area. The experiment was a Randomized Complete Block Design with three blocks replicated three times. The treatments were T1 (100% field capacity), T2 (75% field capacity, T3 (50% field capacity), T4 (25 % field capacity) and T5 (rain-fed) were evaluated. The highest maize yield obtained in season I was 10.9tha-1recorded under full irrigation (T1) followed by 10.4tha-1 obtained in T2, 9.8tha-1 obtained in T3 (50% field capacity), 9.0tha-1 in T4 and the lowest maize yield was 8.4tha-1recorded under rain-fed (T5) while in season II the highest maize yield of 10.2tha-1 was recorded in T1, followed by 9.1tha-1 in T2, 8.3tha-1 in T3, 6.0tha-1 in T4 and the lowest maize yield of 3.0tha-1 was obtained under rain-fed (T5).However,the highestwater use efficiency recorded in season I was22kgha-1mm-1 obtained under rain-fed(T5), 19.8 kgha-1mm-1 recorded in T3 (50% field capacity) while in season II the highest WUE of 24.8kgha-1 mm -1 was recorded in T3, followed by 23.7kgha1mm-1 in T2 and the lowest WUE was 16.6kgha-1mm-1 obtained under rain-fed (T5). Two climate change scenarios (2020-2039) and (2040-2059) were projected and modelled by global circulation model (GCM) and the yield was predicted usingAquaCrop water productivity model. The GCM indicated atemperature rise of1 0C which will affect the future rainfall patterns in the study area. The model predicted rainfall to increase by 15% in season I (short rains) and reduce by 10.1% in season II (long rains) compared to the baseline climate (1986 – 2005). The predicted yield of maize will remain constant under irrigation water management thoughit will significantly vary under rain-fed conditions due to temperature rise and rainfallvariation patterns which affect the crop water requirementat 401mm. The water management practices such as 100% soil surface cover will counteract the effect of climate change by reducing soil surface evaporation, net irrigation requirement and maintaining soil moisture and temperature.