Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of most known and grown vegetable globally. However, its production is constrained mainly by insect pests among them Tomato leafminer (Tuta absoluta Meyrick.) that causes yield losses of upto 100%. The objective of the study was to characterize and evaluate indigenous entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) isolates for the management of T. absoluta on tomato. Five indigenous EPN isolates (TK1, S86, 97, 75 and R52) at different concentrations (100, 150, 200, and 250) of infective juveniles (IJs)/ ml) were evaluated for infectivity on 2nd and 3rd larval stages of T. absoluta under laboratory conditions. Larval mortality (infectivity) was recorded at 24th h interval up to 120 h. The most infective isolate was subjected to morphological and molecular identification and associated symbiotic bacteria isolated and identified. The bacteria larvicidal effect on T. absoluta was evaluated and bacterial crude protein extracted and analysed through SDS-PAGE. All the tested EPN isolates infected and reproduced within T. absoluta. The EPN isolate TK1 was the most infective causing mortality100%; 92±5%), on 2nd and 3rd larval instars, respectively, at a concentration of 100 IJs/ml in the 48th h. The EPN isolate TK1 infective juveniles body was 834.54±87.36 μm (658.60-986.89 μm), hyaline 20.47±3.33 μm (13.45-24.95 μm) and tail 53.22±8.35 μm (40.30-71.51) μm in length. The 1st generation males were J shaped but strongly curved posteriorly almost spiral; spicule 82.05±13.94 μm (57.86-128.30 μm) and gubernaculum 45.28±5.89μm (34.48-54.87 μm) in length. Sequence analysis of ITS region of rDNA of EPN isolate TK1 revealed similarity (83% to 92%) with best BLASTNn hits with closest relative being Steinernema spp. (AY230186.1). The low similarity index result indicates EPN isolate TK1 could be a new species. Sequence analysis of 16S of rDNA symbiotic bacteria TK1, revealed similarity of 97 to 98.93% with best BLASTNn hits with Xenorhabdus sp. My8NJ (AB507811.1 being closest relative (98.93%). Mortality of 68% to 100% at 24 h at different concentrations against T. absoluta was achieved from bacteria isolate TK1 outside the host. The study concludes that EPN isolate TK1 is a Steinernema sp. while its symbiont bacteria TK1 is a Xenorhabdus sp. and both are pathogenic to T. absoluta larvae. From this study, the EPN isolate TK1, its symbiotic bacteria TK1 and bacterial crude protein are recommended for use in the management of T. absoluta. Further research is recommended to determine insecticidal compounds in the bacterial crude protein. Key Words: Entomopathogenic nematodes; Infectivity; Tuta absoluta, Steinernema sp.; Xenorhabdus sp.; larvicidal activity.

The research aims at contributing to the growing number of studies on banking performance by attempting to introduce the interest rate spread as one of the factor behind financial performance in the banks . Interest rate spread is defined by market microstructure characteristics of the banking sector and the policy environment. Risk-averse banks operate with a smaller spread than risk-neutral banks since risk aversion raises the bank’s optimal interest rate and reduces the amount of credit supplied. Widening interest rate spread in Kenya has been widening following interest rate liberalization characterized by high implicit costs with tight monetary policy achieved through increased reserve and cash ratios and declining nonperforming loans. This study sought to establish the relationship between interest rate spread and financial performance of the commercial banks in Kenya. This study adopted a descriptive research design on a sample of quoted commercial banks in Kenya. The study used secondary data, collected from Bank Supervision Report. The study used quantitative techniques in data analysis to the relationship between the interest rate spread and performance of commercial banks. The data is presented using tables.

Smallholder farmers in East Africa generally intercrop maize (Zea mays L.) with grain legumes to intensify cropping, improve soil fertilizer, reduce pests and disease pressure, and control weeds. However, the compatibility of maize with the majority of legume species is only partiallyunderstood, particularly with regards to yield-limiting factors that arise from the intra-specific competition. Intraspecific competition between maize and legumes could be alleviated through both the spatial and temporal arrangement of the companion crops. On the other hand, legumes are frequently integrated into push-pull crop arrangements to suppress field pests in maize such asthe stalk borer and lately the fall armyworm. However, the push-pull technology predominantly integrates non-food legumes such as desmodium but evidence shows that food legumes are also effective in manipulating the pest habitat. In addition, the use of food and perhaps dual-purpose legumes could be more attractive to farmers in comparison with the use of desmodium. Further, the efficiency of this technology could be improved through the temporal arrangement of maize and legumes, particularly by relaying maize into established legumes, albeit with knowledge limitations. In the context of these knowledge gaps, a study was carried out with two objectives: (1) to evaluate the compatibility of maize with a diverse range of legumes species in both simultaneous and relay intercrop system; and (2) to assess the effect of simultaneous and relay intercropping of maize with different legumes species on the suppression of Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) in maize. Field experiments were carried out at the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) in Kiboko and the Kabete farm of the University of Nairobi. In each site,two experiments were carried out, and both experiments consisted of nine legume species: common bean (variety Rosecoco), pigeon pea (Kat 80), dolichos lablab (DL1002), groundnut (ICGV 9704), soybean (SB19), green gram (N26), cowpea (M66) and green leaf desmodium, in addition to sole maize as control. In the first experiment, crops of maize and legumes were sown simultaneously while in the second trial maize was relay cropped into established legumes. Both experiments were laid out in a randomized complete block design and replicated three times. In the maize-legume compatibility study, measurements included crop growth traits, yield components and intercropping productivity indices while the second objective comprised leaf feeding damage, dead heart incidence, ear damage rating, and the number of pest larvae, as well as yield components. Analysis of variance showed significant differences among treatments (p≤ 0.05) in maize-legume compatibility and fall armyworm infestation. Intercropping maize with pigeon pea, lablab in relay cropping system in Kabete, significantly (p≤ 0.05) increased yield by 35% and 70% respectively whereas in simultaneous cropping system in Kabete, desmodium and beans increased maize stand count at harvest by 17.6% and 18.5%, respectively. At the same site, simultaneous intercropping of cowpea recorded significantly the highest maize stand count at harvest (113 plants per an area of 180m2) than relay cropping system at (89 plants at the same area). Similarly, in Kiboko, simultaneous intercropping of maize with green gram, lablab recordedthe highest maize stand count at harvest by 35 and 40 plantsrespectivelymore than relay croppingsystem. In addition to fall armyworm (FAW) infestation data, simultaneous intercropping of maizewith cowpea, lablab, bean, and desmodium significantly (P ≤0.05) reduced FAW damage in maizeleaf by 46.6, 47.0, 73.0, and 73.1% respectively at both vegetative and flowering stage at the twosites. Relaying maize into established cowpea, lablab, beans and desmodium significantly (P≤0.05) reduced FAW infestation in maize leaf by 65.9, 75.6, 78.0 and 87.8% respectively from vegetative to the flowering stage at both sites. More ever, establishing maize simultaneously witheither lablab, green gram, beans and desmodium significantly (P ≤0.05) reduced the number of FAW pest larvae in maize plant by 42.6, 69.6, 70.0, and 87.0% respectively in all physiological stages across the two sites. Similarly, relay establishment of maize into lablab, cowpea, beans, and desmodium significantly (P ≤0.05) reduced the number of FAW pest larvae in maize plant by 62.2, 70.0, 77.8, and 100% respectively in all stages of growth in both sites. In this study, relaying maizeinto an already established lablab, bean and desmodium reduced FAW infestation or damage on maize plants at nearly all physiological stages compared with other legumes in all the sites. In conclusion, when comparing means of lablab and bean with desmodium, it shows there are no significant differences between those three legumes. Therefore, it is highly recommended to use lablab and bean instead of desmodium in the management of FAW in maize.

Successful response to climate variability builds on the proper understanding of the local climatic context and existing strategies such as informal microfinance because the impacts are context specific. However, limited studies have analyzed the contribution of informal microfinance institutions to rural livelihoods climate variability resilience. Also, limited studies have analyzed the factors underlying the contribution of informal microfinance institutions to rural livelihoods climate variability resilience. This gap thus necessitated the research. The specific objectives of the study included to analyze climate variability and trends in Tharaka South Subcounty and assess the structures of informal microfinance institutions in relation to performance. Also, to analyze the effects of climate variability on informal microfinance institutions and analyze the contribution of informal microfinance institutions to rural livelihoods resilience to climate variability. The study used descriptive study design and mixed methods. The multistage sampling design was used to sample 385 respondents for the study. Qualitative data analysis was done using thematic analysis while quantitative data analysis employed descriptive statistics, tabulations, categorical statistics, and Kendall’s tau-b correlation. Climate variability was analyzed using descriptive statistics, coefficient of variation, precipitation concentration index, standardized anomaly, and descriptive statistics. Further, climate trends were analyzed using Mann-Kendall (Z) statistical test and the Sens slope estimator test. The analysis revealed that rainfall in the study area is highly variable with the median intra-annual variability being (127%) and inter-annual variability being (24%). The rainfall has a decreasing trend that is not significant (Z = -0.93, P>0.1). Temperature is also marked by variability and an increasing trend. Climate variability affects rural livelihoods through effect on household’s access to capital assets. Informal microfinance institutions were found to enhance households access to capital assets as shown by their positive and significant contribution to access to healthcare (τb = 0.372**, P<0.01), education (τb = 0.448**, P<0.01), inputs of crop production (τb = 0.447**, P<0.01), and inputs of livestock production (τb = 0.473**, P<0.01). Moreover, there was a positive and significant relationship between rural household’s climate variability resilience and contribution of informal microfinance institutions to the resilience (τb = 0.91**, P<0.01). However, climate variability affects the performance of informal microfinance institutions. This is shown by the significant negative relationship between vulnerability to climate variability and informal microfinance performance (τb = - 0.109**, P<0.01). The vulnerability of informal microfinance institutions to climate variability is a function of their characteristics and this could be leveraged to inform interventions to cushion them against climate risks. Informal microfinance institutions membership is mainly comprised of the women who constituted 79% of the members. Informal microfinance institutions thus play an important role in promoting gender equity and women empowerment which is key to rural livelihoods resilience to climate variability. Also, since women have been documented to be most vulnerable to climate variability effects, vulnerability to climate variability is thus directly associated with participation in informal microfinance institutions as shown by the significant positive relationship between climate variability and the number of people joining informal microfinance institutions (τb = 0.239**, P<0.01) per year from 1981 to 2018. The study also found that the structures of informal microfinance institutions determine their performance, and contribution to rural households to climate variability resilience. The characteristics of informal microfinance institutions could thus be leveraged to enhance their performance and contribution to rural livelihoods resilience to climate variability. Informal microfinance institutions are therefore a key strategy for building livelihoods resilience to climate variability in rural areas.

The study had two objectives. The first objective was to examine the budgetary practices of Savings and Credit Cooperative Societies in Kenya. Secondly, the study sought to determine the challenges of budgeting in Savings and Credit Cooperative Societies in Kenya. This research was a descriptive survey study. From a population of 1,200 registered savings and credit Cooperative Societies (SACCOs) in Nairobi, a sample size of 40 SACCOs was selected using a simple random sampling method. Primary data was collected using a semi-structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics especially percentages were used to establish the budgetary process used by the SACCOs. The results were presented using tables, graphs and charts for ease of understanding. The study found that budgets in SACCOs serve to aid control, aid both short and long term planning, communicate plans, and coordinate activities and also to evaluate performance. Majority of SACCOs used a combination of both top-down and bottom-up approach when preparing budgets. The SACCOs prepare annual budgets covering 12 months. Majority of SACCOs involve the heads of various departments, managing directors and administrative heads. Majority of SACCOs also set specific benchmarks as a combination of monetary value and percentages. Most of the SACCOs also review their budgetary planning and control procedures and changes such as format and time are made during such reviews. The challenges include unqualified personnel who form part of the budgetary committees not being up to the task hence poor budgets made in the ix process, insufficient budgets, bureaucracy in procurement procedures, and poor budget implementation. The study recommends that all stakeholders, including the employees and members need to be involved in the budgetary process. The study also recommends that the committee members be trained on budgeting issues as it was noted that some of them are not qualified yet they are relied on for budgeting in the SACCOs.

The purpose of this study was to gain a deeper understanding of the contribution of direct sales strategy towards attainment of competitive advantage among the various commercial banks in Kenya. The objectives of this study were to establish the direct sales strategy approaches adopted by the commercial banks in Kenya and to determine the impact of the direct sales strategy on the bank’s competitive advantage. A survey was carried out targeting all the 42 commercial banks in Kenya. Primary data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires targeting preferably the sales or marketing managers or their equivalent-the researcher felt that these people are well placed to offer valuable information pertaining to the direct sales strategy implementation. The data collected was analyzed using mean scores, standard deviation, frequency distributions and percentages. The findings from the study were presented in tables. The findings from the study were reassuring in some respects and surprising in others. For instance, it was surprising to note that very few banks have more than 20 branches throughout the country. The study also revealed that though majority of the banks are predominantly local, the number of foreign owned banks is also high and therefore intense competition exists between the locally-owned and foreign-owned banks. It was reassuring to note that majority of the banks have embraced the direct sales strategy as a competitive tool. The study also revealed that direct selling stands out among all the other strategies used by banks to gain competitive advantage. The study recommends that every bank should endeavor to have atleast 20 branches spread throughout the country in the next 5 years to enhance customer reach and market presence. The study further recommends an increase in the size of the direct sales force among the various commercial banks to enhance customer awareness and market penetration. In addition, the banks should conduct regular sales campaigns to excite the market and provide a softer landing to the direct sales people.

Salmonellosis is a major global threat to public health and causes emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant strains. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and characterization of Salmonella species (spp.) in retail pork and raw vegetables commonly known as Kachumbari( tomatoes, onions, pepper, dhania, avocados) served alongside cooked pork in Busia County, Kenya. Samples collected from selected butcheries were 451 consisting of 262 raw pork, 108 cooked pork and 81 side salads served alongside cooked pork. Samples were cultured in Salmonella selective media in Busia ILRI laboratories. Isolated Salmonella spp. were afterwards identified using genus antiserum at the UoN laboratories . Serotyping was done using KauffmannWhyte scheme and antimicrobial sensitivity was determined using disc diffusion method. The overall Salmonella prevalence of retail pork was 32.59% (147/451 95% CI 32.40% - 32.80%). Raw pork recorded the highest prevalence of 49.24% (129/262 95% CI 48.86% - 49.61%), followed by raw vegetables with 19.75% (16/81 95% CI 18.79% - 20.72%) and cooked pork recorded the least with 1.85% (2/108 95% CI 1.65% - 2.10%). Salmonella-positive isolates were highly resistant to the antibiotics used with an overall resistance of 135/147 (91.84%). 67/147 (45.58%) of the samples had multidrug resistance while 99/147 (67.35%) had extended drug resistance. Overall, the isolates had the highest resistance to Gentamicin (63.94%) followed by Ampicillin (59.86%). The highest intermediate resistance was found in ciprofloxacin (76.19%) and nalidixic acid (74.15%). Seven isolates were resistant to third-generation cephalosporins, ceftriaxone. This study highlights a risk of exposure to Salmonella spp. from retail pork and raw vegetables sold at pork butcheries in Busia. This is evidenced by the high prevalence of Salmonella spp. from the raw pork and raw vegetables served alongside cooked pork from butcheries in the four sub- xv counties in Busia that were being investigated. In this setting, cooking of pork mitigated much of the risk of exposure to Salmonella spp. from pork, though the practice of plating pork with raw vegetable side-salads (Kachumbari) with a high prevalence of Salmonella spp. is thought to reintroduce the exposure risk. This study is not able to determine if the vegetables entered the butcheries while contaminated or whether they were cross-contaminated within the butchery setting. This is the first study reporting on salmonella prevalence in retail pork in this country. Worryingly the majority of the isolates were resistant to one or more antimicrobials tested and more than half of them had multidrug-resistant to three or more classes of antimicrobials tested, creating an additional potential health burden. This study highlights risks that may be present in other butchers in the country where hygiene and sanitation are not strictly followed hence necessitating more investigation and action to be taken.

Majority of the supermarkets in Nairobi city are currently facing challenges including poor coordination of materials, overstocking resulting into opportunity cost due to tied up capital and poor information flow within logics personnel. These challenges have adversely affected most of these supermarkets as some of them including Nakumatt Holdings and Ukwala have been forced out of the business. The link between logistic management practices and performance was explored in this investigation. The specific focus of the inquiry was adopted logistic management practices and their link with performance of the leading supermarkets in Nairobi, Kenya. The adopted design was descriptive survey targeting 37 supermarkets supported by census. Views of the participants in the investigation were gathered as aided by first hand sources with analysis being conducted descriptively and inferentially. Tabular forms helped in presentation. It was noted that material handling practices was the highly practiced aspect of logistic management among the leading supermarkets in Nairobi County followed by warehousing management practices, packaging practices, transportation management practices, information management practices, inventory management practices and lastly order processing practices. The study concluded that the adoption of logistic management practices has significantly impacted on customer satisfaction and lead times of the leading supermarkets in Nairobi. The study recommended that the marketing managers of the leading supermarkets in Nairobi should leverage on material handling practices so as to improve customer satisfaction as a measure of performance of their respective firms. In order to optimize lead time, the logistic managers of the leading supermarkets in Nairobi should seek to continuously improve on order processing practices in place. The study was limited by Covid-19 pandemic especially with regard to data collection. The study recommended for further studies on other firms like the leading pharmaceutical firms, the manufacturing Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) or the online shopping malls like Jumia and Kilimall.

Positioning strategies is vital tool to confront competitive pressures in a market environment and also as a tool of improving the performance of the commercial banks. commercial banks needs to develop a distinctive image by which consumers will be able to identify it, it must be able to provide a combination of features perceived to be desirable by the target market. Therefore this research study sought to investigate the influence of positioning strategy on performance of commercial banks in Kenya. This research adopted survey design to explore the viable. The study used a descriptive survey approach in collecting data from the 88 marketing officers working in 44 commercial banks in Kenya. A questionnaire which was drop and pick administered was used in gathering of primary and secondary data. Quantitative and qualitative techniques were used to analyze both primary and secondary data. The content analysis was used to analyze the respondents’ views. The study revealed that positioning strategies enhanced grow more rapidly and more profitable relative to its competitors, improve sales of new products, enabled bank to offer financial services that have important attributes in delivering benefits, attain a big market share, enhance customer loyalty and improve customer retention . From the findings, the study concluded that commercial banks needs to enhance the performance by increasing the level of significance of positioning strategies adopted in order to distinguish itself from its competitors, create an image relative to competitors and be identified in the minds of targeted customers for their product and services. Positions management, market strategies, internal and external infrastructure, use of information technology, ability to innovate and differentiate would be necessary for the bank as it would enable it to increasingly respond to market considerations therefore enhance competition and profitability.

Animal behavioral studies are essential to efficiently manage them and their preferred habitats for the mutual benefit of both. However, very few studies have been conducted on Rothschild’s giraffes’ ethology in Africa, and especially in Kenya. The objective of this study was to assess the seasonal diurnal activity time budget and foraging patterns of free-ranging Rothschild’s giraffes in Lake Nakuru National Park (LNNP), Kenya. The species is under the IUCN Red List, due to a variety of threats and the continued rapid population decline globally. Scan sampling method was used to assess how Rothschild’s giraffes allocate time to various activities of the day. Descriptive data analysis was performed and results presented in bar graphs, and line graphs. Independent t test was performed to compare giraffes’ activities and food preference in different seasons, dry and wet seasons. All statistical tests were considered significant at a 95% confidence limit if type 1 error (alpha) is less than 5% (0.05). Foraging was the principal activity in both dry and wet seasons being allocated 53% and 57% of their time respectively. Resting and movement accounted for 18 and 26%, in dry and wet seasons respectively. Although Vachellia xanthophloea, Maytenus senegalensis, Solanum incanum contributed to the bulk of giraffes’ diet in both seasons, the most preferred woody species was Vachellia xanthophloea in the dry and wet season (67% and 72%) respectively. Other notable plant species that giraffes fed on included Maerua triphylla, Vachellia gerrardii, and Grewia similis during the dry season and Maerua triphylla, Vachellia abyssinica, and Rhus natalensis during the wet season. The most preferred browsing height was about 3.5 meters (level 5) (49% in the dry season and 46% in the wet season) while 1 meter (level 2) was the least preferred (7% in the dry season and 4% in the wet season). At 3 and 3.5 meters (level 4 and 5) giraffes fed on more plant species including Vachellia xanthophloea, Maytenus senegalensis, Maerua triphylla, Vachellia abyssinica, and Rhus natalensis. This study concluded that seasonality does not influence the diurnal activity time budget of Rothschild’s giraffes in LNNP while the hypothesis that Rothschild’s giraffes’ foraging habits vary significantly between the dry and wet seasons was not entirely supported. Giraffes forage and move around when temperatures are low and rest when temperatures are high to conserve energy. The choice of browse species to feed on is an adaptive strategy to survive recurrent droughts, a common occurrence in the study area which is generally Arid and Semi-arid. Giraffes prefer to forage below 4 meters (3.0-3.5), which is within the average body height of an adult giraffe. Planting perennial woody species will promote uniform use of resources in the park, increase the diversity of plant species foraged by giraffes and reduce browsing pressure in acacia woodlands.