Increasing human populations and changes in land use have brought increased competition for space and resources between people and wildlife in the Amboseli Ecosystem. Among the large mammal species, elephants are one of the most vulnerable to land use change due to their home range and seasonal migrations. The ensuing interactions due to sharing resources are frequently negative and the individuals involved progressively develop negative attitudes towards elephants, viewing them as a risk to their survival. The aim of this research was to assess some of the factors driving human-elephant conflict in Imbirikani Group Ranch for improved management and coexistence of elephants and local communities. The specific drivers analyzed were land use and cover (LULC) changes as well as human perceptions toward human-elephant coexistence. LULC changes were analyzed in a 32-year epoch from 1981 to 2019 from Landsat images for 1987, 1999, 2013 and 2019. The data was analyzed through supervised classification with QGIS 3.12 using the maximum likelihood classification algorithm. Percentages of land area were computed to make comparisons of the changes in LULC over time. In addition, a multistage sampling design was applied whereby the study area was divided into strata based on the administrative sub-locations. Household survey was conducted on 320 sampled households selected through a multistage sampling design and primary data gathered by interviewing selected households through semi-structured questionnaires. The households were interviewed on the held attitudes and perceptions on the nature and extent of human elephant conflicts. Further, field visits and observatory data were gathered to unveil farms and property damages caused by Elephants. Focus group discussions were also carried out to gain more insights on available resources mapping and human elephant conflict. Collected data were summarized by descriptive statistics including frequencies and arithmetic means and results presented based on thematic areas such as types of conflict, seasonality of attacks, crops affected, and costs of HEC incidences. A logistic regression model was generated to assess explanatory power of variables while Pearson’s chi-squared tests were computed to establish associations between hypothesized independent variables and the dependent variable of attitudes toward elephant conservation. Shrublands experienced the highest change with a steady decrease of almost 30% over the study period. Bareland increased by 16%. Grassland increased by 7.51%. Woodlands experienced a decline of 11.2%. Irrigated agriculture showed an increase of 12.48%. Crop raiding was the most prevailing form of HEC with the behaviour of raiding elephants being described as habitual from specific elephant groups and nocturnal. The type of crop grown was the most significant predictor for HEC. Education level, gender and location had a significant influence on perceptions and attitudes toward human-elephant coexistence (p = 0.0132, p = 0.0037 and p > 0.0001, respectively). Age (p = 0.1377) and type of livelihood (p = 0.1272) had no significant relationship with the participants’ perceptions and attitudes. Additionally, 61% believed elephants were beneficial but 82% felt bad about free roaming wildlife while the majority, 61%, had a negative attitude toward wildlife authorities. Understanding the spatiotemporal distribution of conflicts, cost implications and nature of crop raiding behaviour in addition to community knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions on the same, should be integrated into management decisions to guide planning of conservation interventions. Integrated spatial planning and land use zoning should be executed in collaboration with the community. Moreover, elephant repellent crops should be grown in HEC hotspot areas and mechanisms to disincentivize agricultural expansion in wildlife habitats and movement corridors established for improved conflict mitigation.

Chilies contain an active component known as capsaicin. It is hydrophobic and is the main capsaicinoid. Due to this component, chilies have obtained certain bioactive components such as antioxidants, phenolic and anti-microbial properties. Based on the mentioned characteristics, chilies exhibit bio pesticide characteristics which can be used to control pest and diseases in crops.In this study, four varieties of chilies were used, including habanero, bird’s eye, cayenne and bullet chilies. This was to assess the potential utilization of capsaicin in control of late blight fungal disease and bacteria speck in tomatoes To determine the capsaicin content in the four varieties, extraction of capsaicin from both ovendried and fresh chilies was conducted using three different solvents at different amounts namely 100ml, 150ml and 200ml which included, methanol 99%, a mixture of methanol 99% and acetone and ethanol 99%. Evaluation of the antioxidant and total phenolic composition of capsaicin from the four varieties was analyzed using the Dipheny1-1-picrtyl-hydrazyl (DPPH) method and the absorbance at λmax 760nm measured on a spectrophotometer respectively. Determination of the sensitivity of capsaicin on late blight and bacterial speck in tomatoes was conducted using the agar dilution method. Moreover, determination of the antimicrobial properties of capsaicin from the four varieties of chilies was conducted by examining the minimum inhibitory concentration and the minimum bactericidal concentration. From extraction using different solvents at different amounts, the ideal solvent was said to be ethanol at 200ml giving an ideal extraction ratio of 1:10. Fresh habanero, bird’s eye, cayenne and bullet chilies had the highest amount of capsaicin respectively at an amount of 23.09 mg/g, 12.36mg/g, 7.37mg/g and 3.80mg/g respectively. Oven died habanero, bird’s eye, cayenne and bullet chilies had the highest amount of capsaicin respectively at an amount of 16.84mg/g, 9.60mg/g, 6.39mg/g and 3.21mg/g respectively. Therefore, fresh chilies had a higher amount of capsaicin than oven dried chilies. A positive correlation was observed between the amount of capsaicin present in the chili varieties and the bioactive components available in the chilies. Total phenolic was highest in both fresh and oven- dried habanero, bird’s eye, cayenne and bullet chilies respectively, having xi fresh chilies with a higher total phenolic than oven-dried chilies. Total phenolic ranged between 2923mg/g- 352mg/g in fresh chilies and 2274.5mg/g – 117mg/g in oven-dried chilies. Similarly, to total phenolic, there was a correlation between the amount of capsaicin in a variety and antioxidant activity in the same. Antioxidant activity was highest in both fresh and ovendried habanero, bird’s eye, cayenne and bullet chilies respectively, having fresh chilies with a higher antioxidant activity than oven-dried chilies. Antioxidant activity ranged between 50%- 86% in fresh chilies and 46%-74% in oven-dried chilies. Capsaicin from fresh chilies had a higher inhibition than oven-dried chilies. Bacterial speck was more susceptible to capsaicin than late blight across all varieties. Zone of inhibition for bacterial speck ranged between 0.96cm – 2.48cm in fresh chilies and 0.63cm – 1.95cm in ovendried chili having habanero with highest zone of inhibition and bullet chili the lowest. Zone of inhibition for late blight ranged between 0.68cm – 2.22cm in fresh chilies and 0.56cm – 1.75cm in oven-dried chili having habanero with highest zone of inhibition and bullet chili the lowest as well. Capsaicin from fresh chilies had a higher MBC than oven-dried chilies. Late blight was more susceptible to the capsaicin than bacterial speck across all varieties. Minimum bactericidal concentration for late blight ranged between 0.01% - 0.18% in the first tube and 0.21% - 0.53% in the second tube incubate, using fresh chilies and 0.02% - 0.20 in the first tube and 0.29% - 0.55% in the second tube incubated, using oven-dried chili having habanero with highest minimum bactericidal concentration and bullet chili the lowest. Minimum bactericidal concentration for bacterial speck ranged between 0.01% - 0.19% in the first tube and 0.26% - 0.55% in the second tube incubate, using fresh chilies and 0.02% - 0.21% in the first tube and 0.30% - 0.61% in the second tube incubated, using oven-dried chili having habanero with highest minimum bactericidal concentration and bullet chili the lowest.as well. From the study, capsaicin from habanero exhibited the most preferred characteristics of bio pesticides from the four varieties tested. A positive correlation between amount of capsaicin and the efficiency of the bio active components characteristics as a bio pesticide was observed. Thus, the higher the amount of capsaicin, the higher the efficacy of capsaicin as a bio pesticide. More study of the efficacy of capsaicin in diseases in tomatoes under in vivo environment is recommended to evaluate the influence of environmental conditions in the bio pesticide properties

Heat stress is considered as one of the factors altering animal productivity and reproductive performances by impairing animal physiology due to the imbalance between heat accumulation and heat loss. Moringa oleifera (MO) is one of the best antioxidant plants because of its numerous bioactive compounds. It is reported to alleviate damages caused by oxidative stress and improve animal productivity and reproductive performances. The general objective of this study was to investigate the pharmacology of MO extract in the management of heat stress disturbances on reproductive performances and oxidative stress in rabbit does. Fresh MO leaves, seeds and barks were collected from 2 to 3 years old MO trees of Bukavu city of South Kivu province in Democratic Republic of Congo and Masii village of Machackos County in Kenya and 300 g of each dried powder was mixed with 700 ml of distilled water. Qualitative and quantitative assessment of bioactive compounds including flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, phenols, glycosides, saponins and terpenoids were performed following standard methods while the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay was used to evaluate the antioxidant activity. Thereafter, twenty-eight rabbit does were randomly distributed to 4 treatments groups (with 7 animals per group) and assigned for 80 days to different room temperatures, relative humidity, temperature humidity index (THI) and of Moringa oleifera aqueous seed extract (MOASE) as follows: group 1 (T0): ambient temperature (18–24°C), 59 ±0.48%, 23.6 ±1.52; group 2 (T1): 35–36°C, 64 ±0.6%, 32.5 ±0.7, 100 mg of MOASE; group 3 (T2): 35–36°C, 64 ±0.6%, 32.5 ±0.7, 200 mg of MOASE; group 4 (T3): 35–36°C, 64 ±0.6%, 32.5 ±0.7. In each rabbit cage, electrical heaters were used from 08:00 h to 16:00 h following with the exposition to the room air temperature as in the control group. The selected range of temperature, relative humidity and THI were chosen according to results observed in the pilot study. During the experiment period, food consumption, body weight and body weight gain as well as rectal and skin temperature were measured daily. Reproductive functions including mating method, number of services per conception, self’fur removal, gestation length, litter size, kit body weight, the weight of the litter, milk intake and milk efficiency were recorded or calculated. All animals were sacrificed after 80 days and data referring to blood parameters, oxidative stress biomarkers, weight of organs, hormones, kidney and ovary histology were collected. Results xviii indicate the presence of glycosides in all the plant parts but the absence of terpenoids in seeds from DRC, phenols and flavonoids in barks from both countries. The highest extraction yield was in leaves of MO from DR Congo and seeds from Kenya. The DPPH showed that MO leaf and seed extracts have appreciable and concentration-dependent increase in scavenging effect. A significant decrease (P<0.05) was observed in the skin and rectal temperatures, weight of lung, liver, kidney, hematological parameters such as mean cell volume, white blood cells, lymphocytes, biochemical parameters such as creatinine, urea, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate amino-transferase as well as oxidative stress biomarkers like kidney lipid peroxidation in rabbits from T1 and T2 compared to those of T3. However, a significant increase (P<0.05) in ovary weight, hemoglobin, red blood cells, glucose, total protein as well as kidney protein, catalase, superoxidase dismutase, reduced glutathione and lipid peroxidation was observed in animals of T1 and T2 compared to those of T3. Regarding reproductive parameters, a significative increase (P<0.05) body weight and body weight gain of both pregnant and lactating female rabbit’s, fur removal and litter weight, litter size, kit body weight and kit weight gain, weekly milk production and daily milk efficiency and estradiol, luteinizing hormone, follicular stimulating hormone and cortisol contents in rabbits from T1 and T2 compared to those of T3. A significant decrease (P<0.05) in the number of services per conception, milk intake and progesterone content in animals of T1 and T2 compared to those of T3 was noted. Kidney histology of animals of T1 and T3 indicated cortical renal parenchyma with fibroblast proliferation in the interstitial tissues and a tubular epithelial cell swelling while ovary tissue of T1, T2 and T3 animals showed structural alterations. It was concluded that Moringa oleifera seeds possess antioxidant activities which could be attributed to some phytochemical components observed in Moringa. These bioactive compounds, when Moringa oleifera aqueous seed extract is administrated at 200mg/kg b.w., minimize the adverse effects of heat stress inducing physiological and reproductive impairment in female rabbits. Other parts of Moringa oleifera (pods, stembark) on heat stress disturbances in rabbits should be studied using organic solvents while the potential toxicity of Moringa oleifera aqueous seed extract should be checked.

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) is a key vegetable in Kenya, listed as second most economically important in the horticultural industry. The production of tomatoes has greatly been affected by bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum. Losses to 100% have been reported in both greenhouse and open fields growing conditions. Most of the bacterial wilt management strategies in place have not provided effective, safe and sustainable solution. Therefore, this study contributes, to sustainable tomato production by the use of Trichoderma species as an alternative method of managing bacterial wilt. The study determined antagonistic activity of Trichoderma species from different habitats against Ralstonia solanacearum in vitro and evaluated their efficacy in managing bacterial wilt of tomato at field level. Trichoderma species were isolated and identified from different soil habitats of Karura forest, compost, manure, coffee, and tomato fields. The dominant Trichoderma species were Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma asperellum and antagonistic check performed using dual plate technique against Ralstonia solanacearum. The antagonistic ability of the Trichoderma species was determined by measuring the growth radius as a percentage. The field experiments were further conducted in a randomized complete design (RCBD) replicated four times in three greenhouses at Naivasha, Mirera area. The treatments included; isolated Trichoderma asperellum, isolated Trichoderma harzianum, combination of isolated Trichoderma asperellum and Trichoderma harzianum, plots with no applications, commercial Trichoderma harzianum, commercial Trichoderma asperellum, combination of commercial Trichoderma harzianum and commercial Trichoderma asperellum. The isolated Trichoderma species were mass multiplied by growing in sterilized sorghum grains. The already infested greenhouse soil was re-inoculated with isolated Ralstonia solanacearum to ensure uniform pathogen levels. This was isolated from infected tomato plants and introduced one week earlier at 35 ml per pot and properly mixed to ensure uniformity. Trichoderma application was done at the transplanting stage of a greenhouse tomato variety Anna F1, and two more applications after every two weeks. The bacterial wilt incidence and severity assessment was then done weekly and yield data recorded based on physiological maturity of the tomato crops. The laboratory in vitro work indicated that the habitats with high organic matter and fewer disturbances in terms of cultivation had high Trichoderma presence. The habitats had a xii total of 42 Trichoderma harzianum isolates and nine Trichoderma asperellum. Trichoderma harzianum were 15 and four Trichoderma asperellum from forest habitat while three Trichoderma asperellum and 10 Trichoderma harzianum from compost habitat. The other habitats also had similar Trichoderma isolates with low frequency. Trichoderma asperellum and Trichoderma harzianum from the forest and compost habitats had the highest percentage inhibition in vitro. In greenhouse conditions, treatments with Trichoderma asperellum or Trichoderma harzianum at P ≤ 0.05 had significant reduction of bacterial wilt incidence and severity as compared to the plots with no applications done. The Trichoderma species combinations treatments had no significant difference from the single Trichoderma species applications at P ≤ 0.05. The incidence and severity of Ralstonia solanacearum were greatly reduced hence better yields in the Trichoderma treated plots. The results indicated that Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma asperellum were efficient in managing bacterial wilt in tomatoes an adoptable alternative management solution to bacterial wilt in tomatoes.

Globally, effective communication channels have played an imperative role in the dissemination of critical information to farmers. However, dismal attention has been given to the access of such information communication channels in disseminating information to farmers in the developing world, especially information on Fall Army Worms (FAW) pest attacks. This study, sought to assess the effectiveness of information communication channels used in information dissemination on Fall Army Worms in maize production amongst farmers in Lugari-Kakamega County, Kenya. It was guided by three objectives: (i) To determine socio-demographic factors that influence information access on control of Fall Army Worms by maize farmers; (ii) To analyze farmer’s perception on access of mass media channels disseminating Fall Army Worm information; and (iii) To assess farmer’s perception on access of inter-personal communication channels disseminating Fall Army Worm information. The study employed a descriptive cross-sectional research design guided by the diffusion of innovations theory.The study applied a purposive sampling technique to identify participant farmers. Data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Qualitative and quantitative data was collected through key informant’s interviews, pre-tested questionnaires and focused group discussions. The study arrived at three conclusions. First, social economic factors play key roles in farmers’ access to information concerning FAW through Television and mobile phones. Improving access to education could increase farmer access to agriculture information such as the management of FAW. Equally, increasing access to wage employment can improve farmer’s access to information concerning the management of FAW. The second conclusion is that radio, phone messages and television were the most effective communication channels for FAW information. There should be policy support towards access to radio, phone and television coverage in order to increase farmer’s access to FAW management practices. Lastly, interpersonal communication channels such as agro dealers and peers play key roles in transmitting information for the management of FAW. Therefore, farmer groups and interaction should be encouraged. xi The study therefore recommends the County government to enhance future dissemination of FAW information via radio, for mass media channels and fellow farmers, for interpersonal channels in both local dialects and Kiswahili languages. Additionally, there is need for re-tooling of extension agents, lead farmers, seed companies and agro-input-dealers on modern methods of FAW control and management

Low crop yields due to erratic rainfall and deteriorating soil fertility in smallholder farmers’ fields of Sub-Saharan Africa have prompted a quest for more resource-efficient production practices. In-situ water harvesting technologies have been proposed as climate-smart agriculture coping mechanisms to alleviate these problems, however, their full potential has not been realized. A study was undertaken to evaluate selected in-situ water harvesting technologies and fertilizer on nutrients uptake, use efficiency, and yield of maize and beans at Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) in Katumani, Machakos County for two seasons; short rain (SR) 2019 and long rain (LR) 2020. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with a split-split plot arrangement, replicated three times with in-situ rainwater harvesting technologies as the main plots, fertilizer inputs as the split plots, and cropping systems as the split-split plots. In-situ rainwater harvesting technologies comprised: Zai pits, Ngolo pits, contour furrows, and conventional tillage. Fertilizer inputs included: Di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) (18:46:0) fertilizer, goat manure, a mixture of DAP + goat manure and control. Cropping systems were: sole maize, sole beans, and maize-bean intercrop. Data was collected on soil nutrient status, soil moisture content, yield, nutrient uptake, and use efficiency. The data were subjected to analysis of variance and mean differences determined at p ≤ 0.05 significance level using GenStat software 15th Edition. During the SR 2019, soil moisture, maize, and beans yields, nutrient (N and P) uptake and uses efficiency were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased by in-situ rainwater harvesting technologies, fertilizer types, and cropping systems. Overall soil moisture content was higher in Zai pits (27.3 cm3 cm-3 ) followed by contour furrows (22.6 cm3 cm-3 ), Ngolo pits (20.8 cm3 cm-3 ) and lowest in conventional tillage (19.1 cm3 cm-3 ). Ngolo pits recorded higher maize and beans yields of 4.5 and 1.6 t ha-1 and above-ground biomass of 7.43 and 1.49 t ha-1 , respectively. Application of 100 kg ha-1 DAP increased maize and beans grain yield by 44.9 and 62.3%, and 58.2 and 56.2% in maize and beans above-ground biomass; respectively, compared to control. The highest N, P, and K uptake in maize grain were 67.8, 48.2 and 24.9 kg ha-1 and 47.2, 14.5, and 64.5 kg ha-1 in stover, respectively, recorded under Ngolo pits, whereas the lowest N, P and K contents in grain were 19.5, 25.7, and 9.5 kg ha-1 and 19.3, 5.37 and 16.8 kg ha-1 in Stover, respectively recorded under conventional tillage treatment. Higher N and P use efficiency of 39.1 and 40.1 kg grain per kg N and P ha-1 , respectively, were realized under Ngolo pits treated with 100 kg ha-1 DAP fertilizer. In the LR 2020, the application of 100 kg ha-1 DAP resulted in a 71.4% and 56% maize grain and biomass increase compared to control. Intercropping maize and beans increased grain yield significantly (p ≤ 0.05) by 10.3 and 29.4% compared to sole maize and sole beans. N, P and K contents were highest under Ngolo pits following application of 100 kg ha-1 DAP. Maize and beans subjected to application of 100 kg ha-1 DAP under Ngolo pits recorded the highest N and P use efficiency at 21.1 and 26.4 kg grain kg N and P ha-1 . The results of the study show that yield response to in-situ water harvesting technologies and fertilizer was influenced by soil moisture availability, N and P uptake, and use efficiency. Ngolo pits in combination with fertilizer performed better compared to conventional tillage under no fertilizer inputs. The results demonstrate the potential of integrating Ngolo pits and DAP fertilizer at the rate of 100 kg ha-1 in improving the yield of maize and beans and resource use efficiency in semi-arid areas. Key words: In-situ rainwater harvesting technologies, Ngolo pits, Zai pits, Nutrient uptake, Nutrient use efficiency

Boswellia sacra is a frankincense-producing tree found in the Arabian Peninsula that includes Oman and southern Somaliland (Northern Somalia). In Somaliland, it is mainly distributed in the Sanaag region including Cel Afweyn where many families depend on its value chain for a living. There is a high global demand for frankincense gums and resin products due to its medicinal, cultural and cosmetic importance leading to overexploitation of existing stands, leading to failure of trees to regenerate attributed to excessive tapping on tree barks causing damage that increases pest and disease infestation. The establishment of the species is hindered by the poor seed germination rate as well as grazing of young seedlings by both wildlife and livestock. This study sought to address the decrease in B. sacra numbers through regeneration via tissue culture and avail information on genetic diversity of two B. sacra populations in Af yare Dawl-dawl and Exdad in Somaliland for conservation and germplasm enhancement. Seed viability was determined by germination rate and tetrazolium tests, which revealed 4.15 % germination rate and 3.3% viability. These values were low but comparable to previously reported percentages of less than 10%, due to lack of viable embryos attributed to self-incompatibility within the species and high tapping frequency. Clonal propagation using tissue culture applied leaf and axillary bud explants for direct and indirect in-vitro regeneration using plant growth regulators, such as TDZ, BAP, NAA, in efforts to develop a micropropagation protocol for mass propagation. Direct invitro regeneration did not produce any regenerants while indirect regeneration produced callus on MS media containing 5 µm TDZ. Somatic embryogenesis was initiated in MS media containing 1 µm BAP+ 0.25 µm IAA, where shoot regenerants were produced. Genetic diversity determined using morphological and molecular markers to establish diversity within and between germplasm to enhance breeding programs. Morphological characterization of B. sacra genotypes from Exdad and Af Yare Dawl-dawl had no significant (p>0.05) differences in height, height to iv branching, number of stems and tree bottom swelling, however, stem type was strongly correlated to height. Hierarchical cluster analysis of principle components extracted from morphological data revealed two main clusters each with two sub-clusters with genotypes from both regions distributed within these clusters, thereby showing high similarity. Molecular characterization was done on Af Yare Dawl-dawl genotypes using SRAP markers and they revealed very low heterozygosity, He=0.053, indicative of very low genetic diversity. PCoA analysis of pairwise genetic distance matrix led to formation of three major clusters with 35.14%, 11.42% and 9.08% variation, indicating existence of three major groups of genotypes with different parentage. This variation indicates that genotypes from the different clusters can be used as progenitors for hybridization and domestication purposes. Low genetic diversity observed calls for urgent conservation measures of the tree species as well as introductions from other areas to enhance the germplasm found in Af Yare Dawl-dawl. Breeding programs for enriching genetic diversity in the study area should be initiated since the current population is faced with the threat of extinction should a sudden environmental change occur. Sustainable frankincense harvesting practices should be enforced to ensure sustainable exploitation of this important resource

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is an important fruit in Kenya for domestic and export markets. However, farmers attain low yields and suffer significant post-harvest losses. Physiological disorders, among them jelly seed, contribute to about 30-40% of post-harvest losses by reducing the marketability of fruits. Optimum yields, fruit quality at harvest and postharvest longevity of mango fruits require proper nutrient management. Some of the physiological disorders that contribute to postharvest losses in mango are attributed to poor calcium nutrition. A study was conducted at Karurumo in Embu County, Eastern Kenya during seasons 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 using Van Dyke cultivar with the following objectives: (1) To determine the effect of varied calcium sources, rates and timing of application on yield of mango fruits; (2) To determine the effect of varied calcium sources, rates and timing of application on jelly seed incidence, post-harvest quality and shelf life of mango fruits; (3) To determine the effect of pre and post-harvest applications of calcium chloride on the quality and shelf life of physiologically mature mango fruits. A randomised complete block design with a split-split plot arrangement replicated three times was used to achieve objectives 1 and 2. Calcium was supplied as calcium nitrate, easygro® and calcium chloride at concentrations of 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0% or 0% (control) at three different times (fruit set, 30 days after fruit set and 30 days to physiological maturity). For objective 1, fruits were harvested at physiological maturity and fruit length, breadth, number of fruits, fruit weight, total weight, fruit retention percentage and fruit tissue calcium concentration were determined. For objective 2, a sample of physiologically mature fruits was taken and ripened in ambient conditions for determination of jelly seed occurrence, fruit weight and calcium distribution in the exocarp, mesocarp, endocarp and cotyledon. Additionally, samples of mature fruits were taken from each treatment for determination of total titratable acidity, total soluble solids, peel colour and peel firmness at harvest and after 12 days of storage under ambient conditions (25±2C, 75-80% RH), using standard protocols. Additionally, untrained panelists were used to score the ripened fruits for selected sensory quality attributes. Objective 3 was achieved by laying out a factorial experiment in a randomized complete block design with a split plot arrangement, replicated three times. Calcium chloride at 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5% or 0% (control) was sprayed on fruits at maturity or 15 days later. Another set of mature fruits was immersed in calcium chloride (0.5%, 1.0% or 1.5% or 0%) for 10 (ten) minutes. The fruits were then stored in ambient conditions and evaluated for selected shelf life indicators and sensory quality characteristics at an interval of two days for an eight days storage period. Peel firmness, total titratable acidity, total soluble solids, flesh colour, beta carotene, and percentage change in fruit weight, carbon dioxide and ethylene evolution rates were assessed. Results indicated that calcium sprayed fruits had higher length, weight, breadth, fruit number, total weight of fruits/tree, retention percentage and calcium content than unsprayed fruits. Calcium chloride (2.0%) sprayed at fruit set was the most effective in enhancing the mean fruit weight (346.3 g and 316.4 g), and the mean total weight of fruits/tree (63,723g and 39,138g) in both seasons respectively. There was a direct correlation between calcium concentration and fruit length (r=0.56 and r=0.81), fruit weight (r=0.34 and r=0.73), fruit breadth (r=0.79 and r=0.88), number of fruits (r=0.86 and r=0.59), fruit retention percentage (r=0.52 and r=0.62) and total weight of fruits (r=0.75 and r=0.68) in both seasons respectively. Application of calcium at fruit set increased calcium content in fruits more than application at later stages of fruit development. Application of calcium chloride, 2.0%, at fruit set stage reported the lowest average jelly seed score in season 1 (1.2) and season 2 (1.2). A significant negative correlation between fruit weight (r = -0.55, r = -0.52), calcium content in the exocarp (r = -0.56, r = -0.49), mesocarp (r = -0.52, r = -0.76), endocarp (r= -0.76, r = -0.66) and jelly seed incidence occurrence was demonstrated in both seasons respectively. Fruits sprayed with calcium chloride (2.0%) at fruit set maintained higher peel firmness (4.83 N, 4.77 N), titratable acidity (1.29%, 1.27%), peel hue angle (67.9, 67.2) and total soluble solids (10.47 o Brix, 9.10 o Brix) than all other treatments in both seasons respectively. Calcium chloride application improved peel colour appearance while calcium nitrate and easygro® led to a deteriorated peel colour appearance. Further, high rates of all sources of calcium led to a deterioration in taste of fruits. Immersion of fruits in calcium chloride (1.5 %) at maturity registered a higher peel firmness (10.6 N, 10.3 N), retained flesh colour (37.45, 36.78), highest TSS (14, 13.8), TTA (0.72%, 0.70%) and higher color appearance scores than the rest of the treatments in both seasons respectively. Fruits sprayed with calcium chloride (1.5%) at maturity registered the lowest amount of carbon dioxide (30.7 ml/kg/hr) and ethylene (1.5 ml/kg/hr). Post-harvest immersion had negative effects on the pulp flavor and increased shriveling of fruits. Spraying of calcium chloride (2.0%) at fruit set gave the highest yield, suppressed jelly seed occurrence, maintained fruit shelf life and improved organoleptic attributes. Calcium applied at fruit set gave better results in the studied parameters than those sprayed later implying that calcium should be applied at early stages of fruit development. Additionally, fruits immersed in calcium chloride (1.5%) enhanced fruit shelf life. However, for good flavor and taste, rate of 1.0% are recommended when fruits are treated by immersion in calcium chloride. This study further demonstrated that calcium is available to the fruit particularly when applied by immersion rather than spraying.

Farming as a source of income for rural households has failed to solely sustain livelihoods. Consequently, there has always been a need for diversification into off-farm activities and which often is not a panacea. Livelihood diversification is seen as a coping strategy for most rural households, although there is limited empirical evidence that shows if' and even why' the households diversify. Furthermore, little is known about the effect of diversification on agricultural production and household income. This study examines the factors influencing livelihood diversification and its effects on agricultural production and household income in Nyamira County, Kenya. Cross-sectional data were collected through semi-structured questionnaires involving 120 households. The first objective of the study was to assess the factors that influence the choice of different livelihood strategies in the study area; the second was to assess the effect of livelihood diversification on agricultural production while the third was to determine the contribution of off-farm income on the total household income of residents in the study area. Multi-stage sampling technique was used whereas the sample size was determined by the use of proportionate to size approach. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the collected data. Seven livelihood strategies adopted in the study area were identified. The most popular off-farm livelihood strategy was casual labour in the agricultural sector and the least was rents. Poisson regression results suggest that; average years of schooling of other household members, number of household members with secondary education, time taken to the water source (P=0.002), access to extension services (P=0.036), group membership (P=0.001) and electricity access (P=0.000) were the factors that influenced the number of livelihood strategies a household selected. Off-farm income accounting for about 44 percent of household income had an effect on agricultural production through the purchase of inputs used in the farm. In conclusion, both farm and off-farm sectors of the rural economy are important in sustaining livelihoods thus efforts towards enhancing both sectors should be put in place. Also, farming households in the study area need to diversify their livelihood sources to increase their cash earnings and to well utilize the existing production resources. To enhance livelihood diversification, the government, both the National and County government, should improve rural infrastructure in terms of provision of electricity and construction of tap water points near homes of people especially in hilly areas of the County.

This study evaluated the morphological and anatomical responses of below-ground parts of Pennisetum mezianum, Digitaria macroblephara,and Themeda triandra to moisture variation in the semi-arid rangelands of South Eastern Kenya. Bud and root functional traits, including average root diameter (RD), root tissue density (RTD), specific root length (SRL), percent root dry matter content (PRDM), and non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) were determined.Soil moisture content below the ground surface was monitored to determine its relationship with the aforementioned parameters. Decline in soil moisture caused significant (p<0.05) decrease in bud size, PRDM, and increase in NSC for all three grass species. Generally, RTD increased with increase in soil moisture deficit in all three grass species. For SRL, it significantly increased with a decrease in soil moisture content in D. macroblephara. There was no significant variation in the average number of buds and RD, with corresponding variation in soil moisture content. Pennisetum mezianum had significantly (p<0.05) higher number of buds, largest bud sizes, largest RD, lowest SRL, lowest RTD, and least amount of NSC content. Themeda triandra and D. macroblephara had a narrow root diameter, high SRL, high RTD, and a high NSC content. These patterns indicate that the three grass species had developed diverse strategies to withstand water deficit conditions, with P. mezianum employing a conservative strategy, while T. triandra and D. macroblephara employ a timely utilization strategy. Further research should be conducted on more range grass species over multiple seasons to better understand adaptive mechanisms of range grass species to enable us to predict plant community change because of climate change.