The education systems of today are characterized by several optional subjects that students have to choose from. It is from this observation that the researcher sought to get a more profound comprehension of the variables that impact the decision of science subjects in Kenya's auxiliary schools, a contextual investigation of Kirimunge Mixed Day Secondary School. The scientist expected for the investigation to edify the school administration on the components that guide the understudies in their decision of science subjects. The examination embraced an expressive review plan. The populace for the investigation was every one of the understudies in Kirimunge Mixed Day Secondary School in Kirinyaga Central Sub-County. An example size of 6 educators and 126 understudies was drawn from the instructors and understudies from frame two to four. Essential information was gathered by utilization of a poll. The examination created both subjective and quantitative information. Quantitative information was broke down utilizing enlightening insights. Subjective information was broke down in light of the substance matter of the reactions. The examination discovered that the school administration was in the forefront in promoting science subjects by hiring extra science teachers (peer teachers) whom the students could identify with and whose purpose was to promote a positive attitude towards science subjects. The study revealed that teachers influenced choice of science subjects through poor association with understudies, unacceptable pace of substance conveyance and poor strategies for instructing. Sexual orientation was a key factor in the decision of science subjects as demonstrated by the fact that most female students shied away from selecting physics since they felt it was better left to the boys who performed better in mathematics. In the study, few cases of parental influence on subject choice were recorded. This was through students who reported that their parents had already set career paths for them hence they had to pick subjects that were in line with the said careers. The study found out that most students had an already set out career path that they wished to pursue and this was what greatly influenced their subject choices. The study concluded that it was important to allow students a free hand in the subject choice as this increased their motivation which in turn boosted performance. The study recommends that students should be encouraged to develop a positive attitude towards sciences. Teachers should cultivate cordial relationships with the student in an effort to improve student’s negative attitudes. Only competent and qualified teachers should be allowed to handle science subjects. Gender differences should be discouraged amongst students. Parents need to positively influence the subject choices of their children. Career guidance and counseling is useful in enhancing informed subject choices and the school should fully support the support the subject choices of the students and provide a favorable environment for learning of science subjects by establishing fully equipped laboratories for practical. For further research the study recommends a study to be carried out to evaluate the factors influencing the student choice of humanity subjects in the same school.

The rabbit is one of the major livestock kept by small scale farmers in many parts of Kenya mainly because of increase in awareness of the advantages offered by the enterprise. However, rabbit industry is constrained by many factors, diseases being major among others. Mange is the second most important disease affecting rabbits. Despite this, there are no records on prevalence and practices on control of rabbit mange in Kenya. Additionally, there are no specific drugs against rabbit mange in Kenya. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence, risk factors, control strategies of rabbit mange and efficacy of commonly used anti-mange drugs in Kiambu and Nyeri counties, central Kenya. A cross sectional study using semi-structured questionnaires complimented with observational data sheets and sample collection was undertaken in June and July 2016. A total of 97 rabbit farms were visited in both counties and 171 samples collected from rabbits with clinical signs of mange. The most common clinical signs of mange as reported by farmers were scratching (39.88%), wounds (25.51%), crusts (21.11%) and head tilting (13.49%). Ear scabs (36.3%), alopecia (24%), scratching (11.7%), crusts (8.8%), and dandruff (1.8%) and wounds on the skin (0.6%) were encountered during clinical examination. Psoroptes cuniculi was the only mite isolated from 49.5% of the farms during the baseline survey. The overall mange prevalence was 49.5%. Fleas (Ctenocephalides canis) were also isolated from 5 farms. Inappropriate use of treatment options by farmers, poor maintenance of hygiene in rabbit houses and sourcing of breeding stock from other farmers were identified as potential risk factors for mange mite infestation in rabbits. The most common treatment options used by farmers against mange were ivermectin (25%), carbaryl (16%) and liquid paraffin (12%). Controlled laboratory and field trials were done to determine the efficacy of anti-mange agents commonly used by farmers in Kiambu and Nyeri counties. In the controlled laboratory trial, a total of 24 rabbits were recruited for the study. Twenty were mange-infested while 4 were mange-free. The mange-infested xiiirabbits were randomly placed into 5 treatment groups (G1, G2, G3, G4 and G5) each consisting of 4 rabbits. The 4 mange-free rabbits formed the negative control group (G6). Rabbits in G1 were treated with ivermectin (0.4mg/kg) at an interval of 14 days, G2 were given a combination of carbaryl and liquid paraffin applied every other day until the lesions cleared. G3 were treated with 5 drops of liquid paraffin applied daily till the lesions cleared, G4 were treated with selamectin (6 mg/kg) applied once on the skin behind the neck. G5 served as positive control and were given 5 drops of distilled water applied topically on their ears while G6 served as negative control rabbits. Lesions were scored daily on a scale of 0-4. Ear scabs were collected weekly up to day 28 to check the viability of the mites. Rabbit weights were also taken weekly during the study period. The efficacy of anti-mange mite agents in a field trial were tested in 140 naturally infested rabbits. Results confirmed ivermectin, selamectin, liquid paraffin, carbaryl-liquid paraffin combination and carbaryl alone to be effective against rabbit mange as manifested by reduced lesion scores and lack of viable mites by the end of the trial. There was a significant difference (p<0.05) in lesion scores between positive control and other treatment groups. Mange is a major challenge to rabbit farming in Kenya, therefore, it is recommended that farmers and animal health workers be informed on methods of its control. Present study revealed that maintenance of hygiene in the hutches, isolation of newly purchased rabbits to observe for signs of mange and treatment of mange infested rabbits to be the best methods of controlling mange. Ivermectin, selamectin, liquid paraffin and carbaryl were confirmed to be effective against rabbit mange. Farmers are encouraged to use liquid paraffin as the first option as it is cost effective and easy to administer relative to other treatment option.

Diabetes mellitus is a non-communicable disease that poses an immense challenge to the health of people worldwide. Solanum nigrum, which is a complex of many species in the family Solanaceae ,has been recorded to be used by many communities in the management of diabetes. This study aimed to evaluate the phytochemical, antidiabetic activity, and safety of two confirmed species, namely; Solanum villosumand Solanum nigrum var. sarrachoides usingstreptozotocin-induced diabetes mice model. Solanum species were grown at Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation (KALRO) Muguga. Qualitative assessment for phytochemical constituents was carried out. Acute toxicity was conducted based on OECD guideline 423. Diabetes was induced by injection of streptozotocin at a dose of 200mg/kg body weight intraperitoneally after the mice fasted for 8 hours. Aqueous extracts were administered orally using an oral gavage at doses of 150 and 300 mg/kg body weight for each plant daily and monitored weekly for 28 days. The results showed that both plants contain vital phytochemicals. Flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, phenols, and glycosides were present in both plants. However, phytosterolsand coumarins were only present in Solanum nigrum var. sarrachoides. Both plants did not show toxicity. On the antidiabetic assay, both plants showed efficacy with Solanum nigrum var. sarrachoides being more potent at both doses. The differences in the activity can be attributed to differences in phytochemicals composition and concentration. The study validates the use of these plants by herbalists and recommends further studies on the plants to elucidate the active compounds that can be used as novel therapies for diabetes. Additionally, the study recommends the evaluation of other species in this complex for anti-1diabetic properties

This study presents results on effect of a combination of bismuth subnitrate teat canal sealant (Boviseal®) and the antibiotic Ampicillin+Cloxacillin (Bovaclox® DC) when used during the dry period on occurrence of mastitis 100 days post-calving. The specific objectives of this study were: to determine the effect of Boviseal® teat canal sealant in combination with Bovaclox® DC in control of dairy cow mastitis 100 days after calving; to determine bacterial pathogens causing mastitis in the selected farms and to determine risk factors associated with mastitis in dairy cows. This controlled field trial was carried out in two dairy farms in Kenya: Chemusian Farm in Nakuru County and Gicheha Farm in Kiambu County. A total of 156 dairy cows were sampled during the dry period for use in the study. They were randomly placed into either of the two study groups: Control group that received the antibiotic -Bovaclox® DC and the Test group that received the Bovaclox® DC followed by an internal teat sealant- Boviseal®. The cows were followed during the entire dry period (60 days to calving) and 100 days post-calving for development of mastitis. Cows in the control group were more susceptible to mastitis 100 days post-calving compared to cows in the treatment group (P<0.001, RR=4.4, OR=17.7). Coagulase negative Staphylococci (CNS) were the most common pathogens isolated from mastitic milk at 34.6 % followed by Micrococcus spp. (9.0%), Streptococcus agalactiae (3.8%), Staphylococcus aureus (1.9%) and Escherichia coli (0.6%). A multiple logistic regression at P≤0.05 showed that cows in Gicheha farm whose barn floor was earthen, those cows in the control group and hindquarters were risk factors for mastitis (RR=1.5, 4.4 and 1.18 respectively). The study thus recommends the use of Bovaclox® DC - Boviseal® dry cow combination and maintenance of good hygienic practices in animal barns and instruments of milking for control of bovine mastitis.

Microplastics (MPs) are plastics less than 5 mm in diameter. Due to their small size, they are easily mistaken for food by sea fauna, particularly the filter and deposit feeders. Ingestion of microplastics may cause poisoning, infertility, gene disruption, gut blockage or damage of the digestive tracts of organisms resulting to reduced feeding. The aim of this study was to determine the type and abundance of microplastics in macro-invertebrates (oysters, jellyfish, and crabs) along the Kenyan Coast (Tudor, Port Reitz and Mida Creeks). Sampling was done during low spring tide in January/February 2018. A total of n = 285 individuals comprising crabs, oysters and crabs were collected from eight stations. Identified species were: Uca dussumieri (Milne Edwars, 1882), Uca inversa (Hoffman, 1874) and Uca vocans (Linnaeus, 1758) for crabs, Saccostrea cucullata (Born, 1758) for oysters while jellyfish belonged to the genus Crambionella. Crabs occurred in seven stations while oysters and jellyfish were encountered in three stations only. U. dussumieri was the dominant species of crabs occurring in six out of the stations. Samples were digested using 10 % KOH at 60 ºC for 24hrs. Digested samples were sieved using 38 µm sieves then filtered through Whatman filter membranes (0.8µ). The filters were viewed under a dissecting microscope and suspected microplastics isolated and tested using a hot needle test. All the samples contained microplastics, mainly fibres that were of different lengths and colours. Colourless fibres were the dominant fibres accounting for 60% of all the fibres. Mean (± SE) lengths of microplastics ranged from 0.1 mm to 4.2 mm. Blue fibres ingested by crabs were the longest at 4.2 mm. Mean (± SE) concentration of microplastics per gram of tissue for the three organisms were: 0.65 ± 0.131 in crabs, 3.36 ± 0.53 in oysters and 0.03 ± 0.01 in jellyfishes. These means were compared using a repeated independent t-test, and were found to be statistically different: crabs and oysters (t= 5.61, df =14, p = 0.01), jellyfish and oysters (t = 5.28, df = 10, p = 0.01) crabs and jellyfish (t= -3.45, df = 12, p = 0.002). Oysters had the highest concentration of microplastics which was attributed to their filter feeding habits which generates a lot of currents and concentrates more particles in the water including microplastics. This study provides evidence of microplastics pollution in waters along the Kenyan coast and their ingestion by filter and deposit feeding fauna which are important as food for humans or fish of economic importance. Consumption of these organisms therefore, could lead to the transfer of microplastics in their tissues into human diet with implications on human health. This study hence, recommends proper plastic waste management to reduce their accumulation in the marine environment and eliminate any possible threat to the economically important sea fauna that ingest them.

Botswana’s livestock sector accounts for about 70 percent of foreign exchange earned from the agriculture sector. Livestock is a major source of income, employment and provides a store of wealth to many low and unskilled Batswana. However, the livestock sector is threatened by several risks including pests and diseases, climatic shocks and abrupt policy shifts that affect production. Some of these risks can be mitigated by adopting livestock insurance. In 2010, the Botswana Insurance Company (BIC) introduced a livestock insurance policy with the objective of encouraging farmers to take up measures that reduce the adverse effects of natural calamities. However, despite the existence of livestock insurance policy, few traditional livestock keepers have adopted it. The objective of this study, therefore, was to assess smallholder cattle keepers’ willingness-to-pay (WTP) for cattle insurance attributes (as a non-market commodity) in the Central District, the largest traditional cattle-keeping district in Botswana. Five focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted in Mahalapye, Radisele, Tamasane, Palapye and Serowe villages to determine the main attributes that the livestock keepers would want to have in a cattle insurance policy. Using the factorial design in conjoint analysis, six attributes and their levels were combined into sixteen profiles which were presented to respondents in pictorial format for preference ranking. The profiles were presented to 182 random selected smallholder cattle keepers for their expression of WTP. The WTP was derived from the marginal utilities of insurance attributes. An ordinary least squares regression was used to assess factors influencing the WTP for cattle insurance attributes among livestock keepers in the study. The results show that the livestock farmers were willing to pay $17.77, $7.07 and $1.12 for weather index-based insurance cover, covering proportion of a herd and replacing a dead cow with a live one respectively. The overall xmean WTP for a full insurance product was $11.45, which is within the price range of the current livestock policy used by commercial livestock keepers in Botswana. The factors that positively influenced respondents’ WTP for cattle insurance were distance to the nearest tarmac road, off-farm investment income, total land size owned by the respondent, and total livestock unit (TLU). The age of household head, access to credit, annual crop sales income and vaccine cost negatively influenced the WTP. In addition, having extra income, land and many cattle increased livestock keepers’ WTP for cattle insurance. Being an older farmer who vaccinated his livestock and received cash from arable farming reduced the WTP for the cattle insurance policy. Given that the most preferred cattle insurance profiles were numbers 7, 12, 10 and 14 with WTP values of US$23.88, US$20.13, US$18.88 and US$18.13 per unit respectively, the BIC could consider designing cattle insurance policy products within that price range. The most ideal policy should have the attributes of profile number 7, i.e., have a 1-month compensation period, cover a portion of the cattle herd, be weather index-based at a monthly premium of US$0.7 paid as an annuity, and compensate keepers with a live animal in case of a loss. Keywords: Willingness to-pay, Cattle insurance attributes, Preference, Smallholder livestock keepers, Conjoint analysis, Ordered probit model, Central District, Botswana

Push-pull is a cereal cropping system that has recently been reported to reduce incidences of ear rots and mycotoxins in maize. However, the effectiveness and mechanism involved is not yet understood. In the current study, the (i) socio-economic and agronomic factors associated with the occurrence of ear rots and contamination of maize with mycotoxins in different cropping systems in western Kenya, (ii) impact of insect management under push-pull cropping system in managing aflatoxin and fumonisins, (iii) role of soil health improvement under push-pull on the population of mycotoxin-producing fungi and (iv) effect of desmodium roots exudates on mycotoxin producing fungi of maize were determined. A household survey covering 116 farmers who practiced push-pull and 139 farmers practicing other cropping systems was conducted in five counties of western Kenya. At least 10 maize ears were sampled per farm during harvest and analyzed for ear rot fungal pathogens, aflatoxin and fumonisins. Sixty push-pull farms, each with a neighboring control farm were examined for damage due to stem borer, fall armyworm, ear rots, ear rot fungal pathogens, aflatoxin and fumonisin levels. Soil was sampled and analyzed for mycotoxigenic fungi and nutrient content at planting, flowering and at harvest. Dried desmodium roots exudates were extracted with methanol and dichloromethane and tested in vitro for growth inhibition of toxigenic isolates of A. flavus and F. verticillioides. All the respondents were small holder farmers with over 50% being female. Twenty six percent of the respondents had knowledge on aflatoxin while over 50% had knowledge of maize ear rots. Most farming practices were similar between cropping systems but significantly (P < 0.05) lower population of F. verticillioides and A. flavus were isolated from the maize samples from push-pull farms. All push-pull samples were contaminated with aflatoxin below 10 µg/kg (Kenyan regulatory threshold) while 4.3% of the samples from non-push-pull had levels above 10 µg/kg. xvFive percent and 9.4% of the maize from push-pull and non-push-pull farms, respectively, had fumonisin above 1000 µg/kg European Commission regulatory threshold. Knowledge on aflatoxin was 7.5 times higher among elderly aged 45 to 60 years while knowledge of ear rots increased 6 times with level of education (P < 0.05) and non-push-pull respondents were 34% more knowledgeable. Fumonisin and aflatoxin contamination in maize increased 3.9 times and by 28%, respectively, with application of diammonium phosphate (DAP) fertilizer during planting (P < 0.05). Aflatoxin levels also significantly increased 2 times with stemborer infestation of maize. Stemborer and fall armyworm damage on foliage and ears of maize were significantly (P < 0.05) reduced by slightly over 50% under push-pull cropping system. Fusarium ear rot was the most common ear rot with mean incidence of 5 and 10% under push-pull and non-push-pull, respectively (P < 0.05). Populations of F. verticillioides and A. flavus were significantly low under push-pull. Aflatoxin levels were not significantly different between cropping systems, but fumonisin were significantly lower by 39% under push-pull cropping system. There was positive and significant correlation among insect damage, ear rot, ear rot fungi and mycotoxin levels in maize. Populations of fungi and nutrients in soils were not significantly different between the cropping systems and did not have significant correlation between them. Methanolic extracts of desmodium roots showed significant reduction in radial growth of toxigenic A. flavus by 11-17% and F. verticillioides by 53-61% through reduced spore germination and germ tube elongation. The results showed that planting maize under push-pull cropping system indirectly reduced mycotoxin contamination through reduced insect damage. Reduced growth of toxigenic fungi in soils under push-pull by chemicals produced into the rhizosphere by desmodium roots was suggested as a potential mechanism of reducing mycotoxin contamination.

Metal mining processes in general, cause environmental heavy metal pollution over time. Extraction and processing of metals, therefore, comes with the responsibility of ensuring that any of by-products are treated before disposal as requirement. This study determined the levels of heavy metal concentrations; cadmium, arsenic, chromium, mercury, lead, copper and zinc in environmental samples, in order to assess the extent of heavy metal pollution in Kilimapesa Gold mine processing plant in Narok County. A total of forty-one (41) samples, from nineteen (19) sites, namely; nine (9) sub-surface soils, eight (8) sediments, fourteen (14) Sodom apple (Solanum incanum) leaves and ten (10) water samples, from the nearby river streams were analysed for heavy metal content. The sediments, soils and plants samples were dried, crushed, sieved and made into thin pellets for analysis using the EDXRF spectrometer available at the Department of Physics, University of Nairobi. Gallium was added to the water samples as an internal standard, mixed before analysis for heavy metal content, using the TXRF spectrometer at the Ministry of Petroleum and Mining Laboratories. The metals concentrations levels in water samples (mg/l) were distributed as follows; Cd (< 4.4), Hg (< 1.0), As (< 1.5), Cr (< 6.5 - 391), Zn (< 3.0 -187), Ni (< 4.0 - 830), Pb (< 3.0) and Cu (< 1.1 470). The highest concentrations were recorded at the confluence of the river streams; this could be due to an accumulation of sediments at the convergence point. The levels in soil samples (mg/kg) were; Cd (< 3.00), Hg (< 1.9-23.5), As (14.6 – 935), Cr (111 - 406), Zn (61.5-156), Ni (24.4-164), Pb (26.6-148) and Cu (42.3-174. The variations of the metals concentration levels in Sodom apple (Solanum incanum) samples (mg/kg) were; Cd (< 3.0), Hg (< 1.9-3.2), As (< 1.1 - 2.0), Cr (< 3.0-10.0), Zn (24.5-40.9), Ni (< 2.0 - 14.3), Pb (< 2.07.2) and Cu (17.9-33.3). These levels are comparable to those found in other undisturbed environment, except for arsenic and lead, which may be attributed to mining activities in Lolgorian.There was a significant difference in metals levels among the three media sampled following ANOVA analyses. Pearson's correlation for all trace elements of interest in Sodom apple (Solanum incanum) and soils were very weak except for mercury. The same trend is replicated betweensoilsand water, and between water and plants, for all heavy metals of interest in this study, except for Zn and Ni, respectively. In general, Kilimapesa soils are moderately to extremely contaminated with these metals. The study therefore recommends the introduction of heavy metals bio-accumulators, like water hyacinth in the waste disposal treatment ponds and for enforcement of disposal regulations and for epidemiological studies.

The purpose of this study was to establish whether Computer Adaptive Testing can be successfully adopted in educational assessment in Kenya by focusing on factors likely to affect its adoption. The study objectives were to determine a) the extent to which adoption of CAT is affected by students and teachers perceptions b) the extent to which adoption of CAT is affected by the existing technological infrastructure; and c) the extent to which adoption of CAT is affected by levels of computer literacy. The study used a sample selected from public secondary schools in Makueni County through simple random sampling technique. Questionnaires with both open and closed questions were used to collect primary data from the respondents while secondary data was obtained from the Ministry of Education, Makueni County Office. The data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) where Descriptive statistics such as frequency distributions, percentages, means and standard deviations as well as inferential statistics such as Pearson Correlation and ANOVA tests were utilized. The findings of the study indicate that teachers and students perceptions are positively related with adoption of CAT (0.085) although the relationship is weak; there is significant relationship between ICT infrastructure and adoption of CAT (0.336) and the relationship between teachers and students level of computer literacy and adoption of CAT is negligible (0.049).

Industrialrelationsisvitalforthesmoothflowofwork.Inthecourseofworking together,theemployersandtheemployeeshavedivergentexpectationsfrom eachotherandthesehavetobeharmonizedtoensuretherealizationofthefirms’ objectives.Inthisprocessthereareoftencomplaints,disputesandconflicts.The idealsituationasenvisionedintheindustrialrelationsactisfortheemployerand theemployeeunionstosittogetherandamicablyworktowardsresolution.Thisis howevernotthecaseinmostinstancesastheseconflictsoftenspillovertothird partyinvolvement.Thestudywasthusaimedatdeterminingtheperceived influenceofthirdpartyinterventionsintradedisputeresolution.Theobjectiveof thestudywastodeterminetheperceivedinfluenceofthirdpartyinterventionsin tradedisputeresolutionamongtradeunionsinKakamegaCounty,Kenya.This calledforacrosssectionaldescriptiveresearchdesignaswellasaqualitative design.Thequantitativeaspectoftheresearchusedmeanandstandarddeviation whilethequalitativeaspectusedphraseanalysisandfactoranalysisqualitative research.ThestudytargetedofficialsfromthetradeunionsinKakamegaCounty fromwhomresponseswerecollectedusingsemistructuredquestionnaires.The datawasthensortedthenanalyzedusingdescriptivestatisticsfollowedby qualitativeanalysis.Thestudyfoundthatmostoftheindustrialrelationsconflicts reachedlevelsofthirdpartyinterventiontoimplythattheagreementsbetween tradeunionsandemployersaregettingfewerwithtimewithnearlyallconflicts solvedbythirdparties.Thestudyalsofoundthatthethirdpartiesareperceivedto beneutral,havelegalknowledge,areperceivedtobewisehaveahigherformal powerthanbothpartiesintheconflict,havehighmoralandethicalstanding,are credible,accessibleandarefairaswellashavecharisma.Thelimitationsofthe studywasthatitwascarriedwithinKakamegaCountyandnotthewholecountry andthereforethereisneedforfurtherstudy