The discourses and realities of judicial institutional behavior in the adjudication of terrorism cases is the subject of this study between 2006 and 2016. A convergence of Buzan’s conception of security and the Lockean prerogative of power anchoring international legal institutionalism, provide a conceptual framework of analysis for this study. The global escalation in the number and intensity of terror attacks and the subsequent resolutions passed by the UNSC, animated the need for international judicial cooperation. The ratification of these resolutions by Kenya, parallel to national security imperatives enhanced the judicial role function in the fight against terror. This study analyses and examines differentiated actor discourses and realities of judicial role function in the fight against terrorism. The study also interrogates how judicial adjudication of terrorism cases mediates Kenya’s international security relations. This study further proffers research based policy options geared towards positively enhancing the role of the judiciary in the global security agenda. This study is centered on the contention that in the fight against terrorism in Kenya, the executive is determined to use its prerogative of power in apparent disregard of the law in a bid to root out terrorism. This is countered by the judicial role function, which, seeks to bring all measures taken by the executive within the ambit of the law. The foregoing leads to differentiated actor discourses when judicial adjudication overrules executive measures for being in contravention of the law.

The main objective of this study was to evaluate the relationships amongst service encounter quality, customer expectations, perceived value and satisfaction of hotel guests. The specific objectives were to explain the statistically significant link between service encounter quality and customer satisfaction; the moderating effect of customer expectations on the relationship between service encounter quality and customer satisfaction. The study also sought to establish the mediating outcome of customers’ perceived value on service encounter quality and customer satisfaction. The last objective study sought to establish the joint effect of service encounter quality, customer expectations and perceived value on customer satisfaction. Service encounter quality, customer expectations and perceived value were used to develop an integrated model to widen the scope of customer satisfaction. The study was anchored on the expectancy disconfirmation theory and supported by the value percept theory, service encounter needs theory and the three factor theory of customer satisfaction. This study was guided by the positivist philosophy and literature from previous related studies was used to develop a conceptual model and hypotheses which were tested using statistical techniques. The study adopted a descriptive cross sectional research design. Sampling was done using systematic random technique and a sample of 376 hotel guests was used in the study. A pilot study was conducted and reliability of the research tool was tested using Cronbach alpha test, validity tests were also carried out to check whether the tools measure what they were intended to. Four parametric tests; multi-collinearity, normality, heteroscedasticity and linearity of data were done to check the appropriateness and accuracy of the data. Data analysis was done using descriptive statistics, factor analysis, correlations and regression. Results showed that the influence of service encounter quality on customer satisfaction was partially mediated by perceived value and moderated by customer expectations. Both influences were positive and statistically significant. Further, service encounter quality had a statistically positive significant impact on customer satisfaction. The joint influence of service encounter quality, customer expectations and perceived value on customer satisfaction was statistically significant. Customers expect that a service is performed right without errors the very first time, therefore, the hotel management must ensure their staff are competent and that other facilities that enhance guests experience like neatness, timely service, modern fixtures meet guest expectations. The study recommends that policy makers and management of hotels in Kenya should improve on service encounter quality and actively pay attention to guests’ expectations. The study has made contribution to the theory of consumer behavior by integrating service encounter quality to customer expectations and perceived value. Since consumer behavior is a dynamic area in marketing, continuous research is needed to address pertinent issues. Future research can also be directed at other hotels with lower star ratings as well as the unclassified hotels.

Mobile initiated financial transactions need to be authenticated. This is a mandatory requirement since it serves as a security step or mechanism against non-repudiation. This is true for Mobile Banking customers in Kenya. The stage of protection for a given authentication scheme relies upon on characteristic combination, authentication channel, credential storage, and encryption. A range of researches had been performed on mobile banking authentication and their stage of protection. Research has proven challenges related to single factor or two factor authentication schemes. However, there are inadequate studies on authentication schemes that mixes different factors of authentications for secure and efficient mobile banking transactions. The goal of the research was to explore challenges of using PIN as the only factor of authentication and further evaluate the effectiveness of incorporating a combined USSD push and PIN efficient multifactor authentication. Convenience non-probability method was used to identify a subset of the population and Snowball Sampling used to target a total of 385 respondents. A total number of 442 responses were received through online administered questionnaires. The study found 84.4% of the respondents use mobile banking frequently. That is to say, many times during the daily lives. Further finding was, the de-facto login method used in mobile banking applications in Kenya, is via PIN and 69% of respondents have incurred losses due to compromised PINs. These descriptive statistics necessitated a need for secure mobile banking app. Hence a need for multi factor authentication. The solution implemented offers remedy to challenges faced by mobile banking customers in Kenya. This solution was not entirely user’s PIN dependent but also tied to other details such as International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI), Mobile Systems International Subscriber Identity Number (MSISDN), and International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) in addition to time bound USSD push augmented with biometric authentication, Fingerprint. These attributes were encrypted using BCrypt Hashing Function in mobile banking applications. The storage of credentials was in distributed locations in encrypted format. The architecture employed provided improved security from cyber-attacks such as: identity theft, phishing, social engineering, spoofing and man in the middle attack. In conclusion, use of USSD push in mobile banking provide an efficient layer of authentication hence improved mobile banking security. Keywords: Mobile Banking, Security, USSD, GSM, Authentication, Encryption, Cloud Computing, Cyber-Attacks.

Nutrition plays an important role in maintaining the health of elderly people; persons aged 60 years and above; as well as in their aging process. The increasing prevalence level of malnutrition among the elderly people is becoming a concern globally. In Kenya, there is limited data on nutrition status of the elderly persons especially in the rural areas such as Kilgoris. This study was therefore done to assess socio-economic characteristics of the elderly people,dietary patterns, nutrient intake and nutritional status in Kilgoris Kenya. A crosssectional study with analytical component was conducted among 221 elderly respondents who met the study criteria. The questionnaires were deployed through Open Data Kit (ODK) on mobile devices. Data on background characteristic, dietary patterns and nutrient intake was collected using socio-economic characteristics, a single 24-Hour dietary recall, and Dietary Diversity Score (DDS) and food consumption frequency for various food items. The anthropometric measurements of weight and height were used to compute Body Mass Index to assess nutritional status. Data analysis was carried out using SPSS version 23 software and MicrosoftExcel for graphical presentations. The results showed that there were slightly more females (50.2%) than males. Those who were married were 89.7%and 65.6% were illiterate. The levels of illiteracy were significantly high among women (81%) than males (70%) (p value=0.022). The majority of the respondents were also unemployed (72.4%) but sale of animals (42.1%) was the main sources of income reported. Diabetes (65%), hypertension (64%), and teeth problems (62% ) were major health issues that affected the wellbeing of elderly persons.Further, the prevalence’s of overweight and underweight were 13% and 26%, respectively. Nevertheless, a positive association was additionally found between nutritional status and DDS (pvalue=0.008) while many did not meet the Recommended Daily Allowances for energy, calcium and other micronutrients. The factors that significantly associated with overweight were high wealth index (OR =2.82, P-value =0.046), receiving pension (OR =0.14, P-value =0.001), owning means of transport (OR =1.78, P-value =0.013) and education attainment (OR =0.33, P-value =0.008). On the other hand, immobility (OR =0.94, P-value = 0.065) and loss of memory (OR =0.00, P-value =0.006), significantly associated with underweight. In conclusion, the elderly people in Kilgoris have poor nutritional status compounded by poor dietary intakes that lead to not meeting the Recommended Daily Allowances for most nutrients. High morbidities, lifestyle behaviours and low socio-economic status also affect the wellbeing and health of the elderly. Provision of pension or cash transfer to all elderly people, creation of income generating activities, provision of geriatrics services and adequate drugs to the elderly people are some of intervetions that can be prioritized.

The rabbit is one of the major livestock kept by small scale farmers in many parts of Kenya mainly because of increase in awareness of the advantages offered by the enterprise. However, rabbit industry is constrained by many factors, diseases being major among others. Mange is the second most important disease affecting rabbits. Despite this, there are no records on prevalence and practices on control of rabbit mange in Kenya. Additionally, there are no specific drugs against rabbit mange in Kenya. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence, risk factors, control strategies of rabbit mange and efficacy of commonly used anti-mange drugs in Kiambu and Nyeri counties, central Kenya. A cross sectional study using semi-structured questionnaires complimented with observational data sheets and sample collection was undertaken in June and July 2016. A total of 97 rabbit farms were visited in both counties and 171 samples collected from rabbits with clinical signs of mange. The most common clinical signs of mange as reported by farmers were scratching (39.88%), wounds (25.51%), crusts (21.11%) and head tilting (13.49%). Ear scabs (36.3%), alopecia (24%), scratching (11.7%), crusts (8.8%), and dandruff (1.8%) and wounds on the skin (0.6%) were encountered during clinical examination. Psoroptes cuniculi was the only mite isolated from 49.5% of the farms during the baseline survey. The overall mange prevalence was 49.5%. Fleas (Ctenocephalides canis) were also isolated from 5 farms. Inappropriate use of treatment options by farmers, poor maintenance of hygiene in rabbit houses and sourcing of breeding stock from other farmers were identified as potential risk factors for mange mite infestation in rabbits. The most common treatment options used by farmers against mange were ivermectin (25%), carbaryl (16%) and liquid paraffin (12%). Controlled laboratory and field trials were done to determine the efficacy of anti-mange agents commonly used by farmers in Kiambu and Nyeri counties. In the controlled laboratory trial, a total of 24 rabbits were recruited for the study. Twenty were mange-infested while 4 were mange-free. The mange-infested xiiirabbits were randomly placed into 5 treatment groups (G1, G2, G3, G4 and G5) each consisting of 4 rabbits. The 4 mange-free rabbits formed the negative control group (G6). Rabbits in G1 were treated with ivermectin (0.4mg/kg) at an interval of 14 days, G2 were given a combination of carbaryl and liquid paraffin applied every other day until the lesions cleared. G3 were treated with 5 drops of liquid paraffin applied daily till the lesions cleared, G4 were treated with selamectin (6 mg/kg) applied once on the skin behind the neck. G5 served as positive control and were given 5 drops of distilled water applied topically on their ears while G6 served as negative control rabbits. Lesions were scored daily on a scale of 0-4. Ear scabs were collected weekly up to day 28 to check the viability of the mites. Rabbit weights were also taken weekly during the study period. The efficacy of anti-mange mite agents in a field trial were tested in 140 naturally infested rabbits. Results confirmed ivermectin, selamectin, liquid paraffin, carbaryl-liquid paraffin combination and carbaryl alone to be effective against rabbit mange as manifested by reduced lesion scores and lack of viable mites by the end of the trial. There was a significant difference (p<0.05) in lesion scores between positive control and other treatment groups. Mange is a major challenge to rabbit farming in Kenya, therefore, it is recommended that farmers and animal health workers be informed on methods of its control. Present study revealed that maintenance of hygiene in the hutches, isolation of newly purchased rabbits to observe for signs of mange and treatment of mange infested rabbits to be the best methods of controlling mange. Ivermectin, selamectin, liquid paraffin and carbaryl were confirmed to be effective against rabbit mange. Farmers are encouraged to use liquid paraffin as the first option as it is cost effective and easy to administer relative to other treatment option.

Diabetes mellitus is a non-communicable disease that poses an immense challenge to the health of people worldwide. Solanum nigrum, which is a complex of many species in the family Solanaceae ,has been recorded to be used by many communities in the management of diabetes. This study aimed to evaluate the phytochemical, antidiabetic activity, and safety of two confirmed species, namely; Solanum villosumand Solanum nigrum var. sarrachoides usingstreptozotocin-induced diabetes mice model. Solanum species were grown at Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation (KALRO) Muguga. Qualitative assessment for phytochemical constituents was carried out. Acute toxicity was conducted based on OECD guideline 423. Diabetes was induced by injection of streptozotocin at a dose of 200mg/kg body weight intraperitoneally after the mice fasted for 8 hours. Aqueous extracts were administered orally using an oral gavage at doses of 150 and 300 mg/kg body weight for each plant daily and monitored weekly for 28 days. The results showed that both plants contain vital phytochemicals. Flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, phenols, and glycosides were present in both plants. However, phytosterolsand coumarins were only present in Solanum nigrum var. sarrachoides. Both plants did not show toxicity. On the antidiabetic assay, both plants showed efficacy with Solanum nigrum var. sarrachoides being more potent at both doses. The differences in the activity can be attributed to differences in phytochemicals composition and concentration. The study validates the use of these plants by herbalists and recommends further studies on the plants to elucidate the active compounds that can be used as novel therapies for diabetes. Additionally, the study recommends the evaluation of other species in this complex for anti-1diabetic properties

This study presents results on effect of a combination of bismuth subnitrate teat canal sealant (Boviseal®) and the antibiotic Ampicillin+Cloxacillin (Bovaclox® DC) when used during the dry period on occurrence of mastitis 100 days post-calving. The specific objectives of this study were: to determine the effect of Boviseal® teat canal sealant in combination with Bovaclox® DC in control of dairy cow mastitis 100 days after calving; to determine bacterial pathogens causing mastitis in the selected farms and to determine risk factors associated with mastitis in dairy cows. This controlled field trial was carried out in two dairy farms in Kenya: Chemusian Farm in Nakuru County and Gicheha Farm in Kiambu County. A total of 156 dairy cows were sampled during the dry period for use in the study. They were randomly placed into either of the two study groups: Control group that received the antibiotic -Bovaclox® DC and the Test group that received the Bovaclox® DC followed by an internal teat sealant- Boviseal®. The cows were followed during the entire dry period (60 days to calving) and 100 days post-calving for development of mastitis. Cows in the control group were more susceptible to mastitis 100 days post-calving compared to cows in the treatment group (P<0.001, RR=4.4, OR=17.7). Coagulase negative Staphylococci (CNS) were the most common pathogens isolated from mastitic milk at 34.6 % followed by Micrococcus spp. (9.0%), Streptococcus agalactiae (3.8%), Staphylococcus aureus (1.9%) and Escherichia coli (0.6%). A multiple logistic regression at P≤0.05 showed that cows in Gicheha farm whose barn floor was earthen, those cows in the control group and hindquarters were risk factors for mastitis (RR=1.5, 4.4 and 1.18 respectively). The study thus recommends the use of Bovaclox® DC - Boviseal® dry cow combination and maintenance of good hygienic practices in animal barns and instruments of milking for control of bovine mastitis.

Microplastics (MPs) are plastics less than 5 mm in diameter. Due to their small size, they are easily mistaken for food by sea fauna, particularly the filter and deposit feeders. Ingestion of microplastics may cause poisoning, infertility, gene disruption, gut blockage or damage of the digestive tracts of organisms resulting to reduced feeding. The aim of this study was to determine the type and abundance of microplastics in macro-invertebrates (oysters, jellyfish, and crabs) along the Kenyan Coast (Tudor, Port Reitz and Mida Creeks). Sampling was done during low spring tide in January/February 2018. A total of n = 285 individuals comprising crabs, oysters and crabs were collected from eight stations. Identified species were: Uca dussumieri (Milne Edwars, 1882), Uca inversa (Hoffman, 1874) and Uca vocans (Linnaeus, 1758) for crabs, Saccostrea cucullata (Born, 1758) for oysters while jellyfish belonged to the genus Crambionella. Crabs occurred in seven stations while oysters and jellyfish were encountered in three stations only. U. dussumieri was the dominant species of crabs occurring in six out of the stations. Samples were digested using 10 % KOH at 60 ºC for 24hrs. Digested samples were sieved using 38 µm sieves then filtered through Whatman filter membranes (0.8µ). The filters were viewed under a dissecting microscope and suspected microplastics isolated and tested using a hot needle test. All the samples contained microplastics, mainly fibres that were of different lengths and colours. Colourless fibres were the dominant fibres accounting for 60% of all the fibres. Mean (± SE) lengths of microplastics ranged from 0.1 mm to 4.2 mm. Blue fibres ingested by crabs were the longest at 4.2 mm. Mean (± SE) concentration of microplastics per gram of tissue for the three organisms were: 0.65 ± 0.131 in crabs, 3.36 ± 0.53 in oysters and 0.03 ± 0.01 in jellyfishes. These means were compared using a repeated independent t-test, and were found to be statistically different: crabs and oysters (t= 5.61, df =14, p = 0.01), jellyfish and oysters (t = 5.28, df = 10, p = 0.01) crabs and jellyfish (t= -3.45, df = 12, p = 0.002). Oysters had the highest concentration of microplastics which was attributed to their filter feeding habits which generates a lot of currents and concentrates more particles in the water including microplastics. This study provides evidence of microplastics pollution in waters along the Kenyan coast and their ingestion by filter and deposit feeding fauna which are important as food for humans or fish of economic importance. Consumption of these organisms therefore, could lead to the transfer of microplastics in their tissues into human diet with implications on human health. This study hence, recommends proper plastic waste management to reduce their accumulation in the marine environment and eliminate any possible threat to the economically important sea fauna that ingest them.

Push-pull is a cereal cropping system that has recently been reported to reduce incidences of ear rots and mycotoxins in maize. However, the effectiveness and mechanism involved is not yet understood. In the current study, the (i) socio-economic and agronomic factors associated with the occurrence of ear rots and contamination of maize with mycotoxins in different cropping systems in western Kenya, (ii) impact of insect management under push-pull cropping system in managing aflatoxin and fumonisins, (iii) role of soil health improvement under push-pull on the population of mycotoxin-producing fungi and (iv) effect of desmodium roots exudates on mycotoxin producing fungi of maize were determined. A household survey covering 116 farmers who practiced push-pull and 139 farmers practicing other cropping systems was conducted in five counties of western Kenya. At least 10 maize ears were sampled per farm during harvest and analyzed for ear rot fungal pathogens, aflatoxin and fumonisins. Sixty push-pull farms, each with a neighboring control farm were examined for damage due to stem borer, fall armyworm, ear rots, ear rot fungal pathogens, aflatoxin and fumonisin levels. Soil was sampled and analyzed for mycotoxigenic fungi and nutrient content at planting, flowering and at harvest. Dried desmodium roots exudates were extracted with methanol and dichloromethane and tested in vitro for growth inhibition of toxigenic isolates of A. flavus and F. verticillioides. All the respondents were small holder farmers with over 50% being female. Twenty six percent of the respondents had knowledge on aflatoxin while over 50% had knowledge of maize ear rots. Most farming practices were similar between cropping systems but significantly (P < 0.05) lower population of F. verticillioides and A. flavus were isolated from the maize samples from push-pull farms. All push-pull samples were contaminated with aflatoxin below 10 µg/kg (Kenyan regulatory threshold) while 4.3% of the samples from non-push-pull had levels above 10 µg/kg. xvFive percent and 9.4% of the maize from push-pull and non-push-pull farms, respectively, had fumonisin above 1000 µg/kg European Commission regulatory threshold. Knowledge on aflatoxin was 7.5 times higher among elderly aged 45 to 60 years while knowledge of ear rots increased 6 times with level of education (P < 0.05) and non-push-pull respondents were 34% more knowledgeable. Fumonisin and aflatoxin contamination in maize increased 3.9 times and by 28%, respectively, with application of diammonium phosphate (DAP) fertilizer during planting (P < 0.05). Aflatoxin levels also significantly increased 2 times with stemborer infestation of maize. Stemborer and fall armyworm damage on foliage and ears of maize were significantly (P < 0.05) reduced by slightly over 50% under push-pull cropping system. Fusarium ear rot was the most common ear rot with mean incidence of 5 and 10% under push-pull and non-push-pull, respectively (P < 0.05). Populations of F. verticillioides and A. flavus were significantly low under push-pull. Aflatoxin levels were not significantly different between cropping systems, but fumonisin were significantly lower by 39% under push-pull cropping system. There was positive and significant correlation among insect damage, ear rot, ear rot fungi and mycotoxin levels in maize. Populations of fungi and nutrients in soils were not significantly different between the cropping systems and did not have significant correlation between them. Methanolic extracts of desmodium roots showed significant reduction in radial growth of toxigenic A. flavus by 11-17% and F. verticillioides by 53-61% through reduced spore germination and germ tube elongation. The results showed that planting maize under push-pull cropping system indirectly reduced mycotoxin contamination through reduced insect damage. Reduced growth of toxigenic fungi in soils under push-pull by chemicals produced into the rhizosphere by desmodium roots was suggested as a potential mechanism of reducing mycotoxin contamination.

Metal mining processes in general, cause environmental heavy metal pollution over time. Extraction and processing of metals, therefore, comes with the responsibility of ensuring that any of by-products are treated before disposal as requirement. This study determined the levels of heavy metal concentrations; cadmium, arsenic, chromium, mercury, lead, copper and zinc in environmental samples, in order to assess the extent of heavy metal pollution in Kilimapesa Gold mine processing plant in Narok County. A total of forty-one (41) samples, from nineteen (19) sites, namely; nine (9) sub-surface soils, eight (8) sediments, fourteen (14) Sodom apple (Solanum incanum) leaves and ten (10) water samples, from the nearby river streams were analysed for heavy metal content. The sediments, soils and plants samples were dried, crushed, sieved and made into thin pellets for analysis using the EDXRF spectrometer available at the Department of Physics, University of Nairobi. Gallium was added to the water samples as an internal standard, mixed before analysis for heavy metal content, using the TXRF spectrometer at the Ministry of Petroleum and Mining Laboratories. The metals concentrations levels in water samples (mg/l) were distributed as follows; Cd (< 4.4), Hg (< 1.0), As (< 1.5), Cr (< 6.5 - 391), Zn (< 3.0 -187), Ni (< 4.0 - 830), Pb (< 3.0) and Cu (< 1.1 470). The highest concentrations were recorded at the confluence of the river streams; this could be due to an accumulation of sediments at the convergence point. The levels in soil samples (mg/kg) were; Cd (< 3.00), Hg (< 1.9-23.5), As (14.6 – 935), Cr (111 - 406), Zn (61.5-156), Ni (24.4-164), Pb (26.6-148) and Cu (42.3-174. The variations of the metals concentration levels in Sodom apple (Solanum incanum) samples (mg/kg) were; Cd (< 3.0), Hg (< 1.9-3.2), As (< 1.1 - 2.0), Cr (< 3.0-10.0), Zn (24.5-40.9), Ni (< 2.0 - 14.3), Pb (< 2.07.2) and Cu (17.9-33.3). These levels are comparable to those found in other undisturbed environment, except for arsenic and lead, which may be attributed to mining activities in Lolgorian.There was a significant difference in metals levels among the three media sampled following ANOVA analyses. Pearson's correlation for all trace elements of interest in Sodom apple (Solanum incanum) and soils were very weak except for mercury. The same trend is replicated betweensoilsand water, and between water and plants, for all heavy metals of interest in this study, except for Zn and Ni, respectively. In general, Kilimapesa soils are moderately to extremely contaminated with these metals. The study therefore recommends the introduction of heavy metals bio-accumulators, like water hyacinth in the waste disposal treatment ponds and for enforcement of disposal regulations and for epidemiological studies.