Particulate matter (PM) of 10 micron (μm) or less in diameter, (PM10) is a component of inhalable dust. These particles are indicators of air pollution and one of the major human health and environmental concern. Their harmful health effects, ranges from minor irritation to chronic infections in the respiratory system. Furthermore, their toxicities depend on the chemical composition. The PM10 levels vary greatly due to the influence of meteorological factors and their removal from the atmosphere is most challenging especially when they consist of secondary particles. There has been health concern among communities over possible exposure to elevated levels of PM10 of the cement industries. The study was therefore conducted to assess PM10 levels around the cement industries in Athi River Municipality, Machakos County in Kenya. The PM10 levels were collected from five sites in the morning and afternoon for three hours at each site, for three consecutive days during the rainy (April-June and in October) and dry (January-March and in September) seasons of 2019. They were collected using a 47 mm polytetrafluoroethylene filter membrane fitted in an air sampler (Model: Ecotec microvolt-1100). All filter membranes were conditioned for 24-hours prior to pre-weighing and post-weighing using unibloc shimadzu AUW220D analytical balance. Meteorological measurements were further recorded during collection of PM10 levels. The analysis of PM10 levels and elemental composition were carried out using the gravimetric and energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) techniques, respectively. The results showed that mean ± standard deviation (SD) PM10 levels ranged from 43.2±10.7 to 592.6±133.5 μg/m3 across the five sites regardless of the period of the day and the season. In descending order, the industrial site “A” had mean PM10 level (μg/m3) of 592.6±133.5 and 271.6±46.6; industrial site “B” had 401.2±70.1 and 216.0±28.3; commercial site had 370.4±49.0 and 160.5±38.6; residential areas “B” had 333.3±37.1 and 179.0±10.7 and “A” had 246.9±21.4 and 129.6±18.5 in the morning and afternoon, respectively during the dry season. During the rainy season, similar trends were observed with industrial site “A” having a mean PM10 level (μg/m3) of 302.5±56.6 and 166.7±37.1; industrial site “B” had 277.8±32.1 and 154.3±28.3; commercial site had 246.9±46.6 and 86.4±21.4 residential areas “B” had 197.5±38.5 and 74.1±18.5 and “A” had 111.1±18.5 and 43.2±10.7, in the morning and afternoon, respectively. The study showed that industrial sites had the highest PM10 levels, followed by the commercial sites and the least levels were from residential sites. The substantial PM10 levels in these sites were mainly attributable to emissions from cement industries. The levels were significantly higher (p< 0.05) in the morning than afternoons in both seasons and considerably high (p < 0.05) during the dry compared to the rainy season. The meteorological factors had a high influence (p < 0.05) on these levels where, negative correlations of R= -0.752 and R= -0.783 were observed between wind speed and temperature, respectively, and PM10 levels during the dry season. Conversely, a positive correlation of R = 0.906 was obtained between relative humidity and PM10 levels. Similar trend in the correlation values of R = -0.374, R = -0.506 and R = 0.826 were observed between wind speed, temperature and relative humidity, respectively, and PM10 levels in the rainy season. The mean PM10 values for residential site ‘’B” situated downwind of the cement industries were also consistently high notwithstanding the period of the day and season when compared to those of the residential site “A” situated upwind. The PM10 levels at the five sites had variations in the percentage composition of Cu, Sb, Si, Al, Ca, Fe, Zn, Cr, Pb, Cd and Ni. Nonetheless, Si, Cd, Al, Ca and Fe, components of cement, were prominent elements detected across these sampling sites irrespective of the seasons. The high levels of PM10 with toxic components found in this study implies that suitable interventions and policies should be put in place to control these levels and safeguard human health and environment.

Disputes have become a common problem afflicting the construction industry and they have the tendency to cause undesirable effects if not effectively resolved. Such effective resolution requires timely and economical resolution, with final outcomes that are satisfactory to the disputants involved. Arbitration has for a while been the preferred resolution method. However, it has recently been the subject of discussion both in industry and academia because of incessant delays, high costs and increasingly unacceptable awards. Although studies have attempted to identify the various causes of ineffective arbitration, they have not only been descriptive but also relied on anecdotes and subjective opinions. Consequently, the studies’ findings have little explanatory power, making it difficult to confront the underlying causes of arbitral ineffectiveness. The aim of this comparative case study was to develop a framework for effective arbitration of construction disputes in Kenya. A review of the related literature brought out ten determinants of arbitral effectiveness, including award favourability, perceived award fairness, perceived procedural fairness, perceived quality of the decision-making process, perceived quality of treatment, perceived adequacy of the size of the tribunal, approaches to the presentation of evidence, competence of the tribunal, distribution of control and complexity of the dispute. These factors were conceptualised into a structural model. Qualitative data collection and analysis were then undertaken to establish the relationships among the factors. Thirteen semi-structured interviews of participants in five construction disputes in Kenya helped to explain the factors influencing the effectiveness of construction arbitration, which formed the basis upon which the framework was developed. Pattern-matching analysis helped to reveal that out of the ten identified factors, only award favourability was found to directly influence arbitral effectiveness. Four other factors including the approaches to the presentation of evidence, the competence of the tribunal, distribution of control and complexity of the dispute also influenced arbitral effectiveness among the cases, but through award favourability. In this study, the researcher makes a distinct contribution to knowledge by demonstrating that award favourability and the control model of procedural justice are the components of organisational justice that did influenced arbitral effectiveness in the cases studied. Thus, disputants in the cases were more interested in material gains than in maintaining and sustaining their business relations, explaining why the awards were challenged, hence straining their relationships. This instrumental nature suggests that these disputants were less interested in fairness of the process and its outcome, explaining why the influence of award fairness, procedural fairness and interactional justice on arbitral effectiveness was not supported. Despite the ineffectiveness of the cases, participants maintained that they would still refer future construction disputes to arbitration, mainly because of its procedural and interactional justice. Finally, a schematic framework was synthesised from the data analysis results. The framework requires implementation of institutional, legal and policy interventions for effective construction arbitration. The proposed interventions include a review of the training curricula to impart soft skills on effective construction arbitration, review of the arbitration rules, standing panels to match arbitrators to the various case complexities and the need for arbitrators to proactively manage their cases. There is also a need for disputants to customise the dispute resolution clauses during the contract drafting stage to incorporate desired xxqualifications of the arbitrators to minimise mismatches between case complexities and competence. During contract execution, there is a need proactively gather and document evidence that is likely to be useful to enhance evidence presentation. The need for disputants to conduct themselves well and for the tribunals to use their powers in instilling discipline and for the tribunals to make their awards timely, based on evidence cannot be over emphasised. If implemented, these interventions can assist in enhancing the effectiveness of construction arbitration by minimising delays, unnecessary costs and improving award acceptability. The researcher recommends further quantitative research to test the structural model on other cases and to generalise the findings.Keywords: arbitration, effectiveness, disputes, construction, organisational justice

The main purpose of the study is to determine the investment strategies used by Kenya Power and Lighting Company within the power distribution sector. Adequate investment in capacity and efficient working of transmission and distribution systems in developing economies with high growth of electricity demand are important objectives. The literature review available on investment strategies within the power distribution sector have been captured and the theoretical underpinnings of investment strategies. In many developing countries, the electricity system is too weak to meet growing demand and the availability and reliability of generating capacity is inadequate. Protracted mismanagement, political interference, subsidized pricing, and corruption all undermine the ability of developing electricity supply industries to finance and deliver service or attract new private investment. Spot market pricing is a sufficient condition for an efficient level of investment. Data was collected using interview guides administered to senior managers within the company. This involved sample selection and description, research design, population and sampling design, data collection methods, tools and procedures, and data analysis and reporting. The data was obtained from the various management team members belonging to different departments analyzed and compared against each other in order to get more revelation on the issues under study. The study recommends that electricity sub sector, costs should be reduced and electricity tariff setting harmonized and enhancing information asymmetry between policy makers, deliberate measures to improve penetration of renewable technologies, regulators, providers and consumers. The study suggest further research on Investment Strategies by Kenya Power and Lighting Company within the Power distribution sector to supplement the findings of this study by providing information on evaluation of Kenya Power and Lighting Company within the Power distribution sector.

One billion people (32 percent) of the world’s urban population live in deplorable living conditions in informal settlements, according to estimates by the United Nations. In Kenya, they estimate to be at 56 percent (and the figure is projected to grow. There is, therefore a pressing need for action. Slum upgrading is seen as the current best practice in addressing this challenge. However, upgrading has its challenges. This study sought to investigate this strategy in Kenya to make recommendations on how its policies and programs can be better designed and implemented for maximum impact and sustainability. Studies have shown that upgrading has improved living conditions and quality of life in informal settlements. However, it has sometimes failed to achieve the intended purpose. Part of the challenge lies in the compartmentalization of upgrading interventions along sectoral lines which make it less impactful. There is a need for linked up approaches where synergies can be leveraged and tradeoffs minimized to enhance the impact and sustainability of upgrading efforts. However crosssectoral linkages in the interventions have received limited attention. This study contributes to this knowledge gap by investigating the nexus of slum upgrading interventions, specifically, interventions of tenure security, infrastructure, and livelihoods as well as their institutional dynamics. The inadequacy of these elements underpins poverty and deprivation, thus the proliferation of informal settlements in the urban space. Although there is growing literature on various aspects of these; there is limited research on their interconnections. Understanding these links and their institutional dynamics are critical for policy and implementation of upgrading programs. This study’s conceptual framework builds on existing theories on tenure, infrastructure and livelihoods to conceptualize a multi-sectoral linked up approach to upgrading comprising these three essential elements. The study was undertaken in Eldoret town located in western Kenya within East Africa. A multi-case study design comprising Huruma, Munyaka, and Kamkunji settlements and a mixed-method approach of both qualitative ( interpretivist) and quantitative (positivist) techniques were used for data collection, analysis and hypothesis testing. Findings showed a limiting sectoral approach, neglect of livelihoods but a linkage in tenure security, infrastructure, and livelihoods improvements in informal settlements upgrading. The study thus recommends a multisector integrated approach that incorporates both physical and human aspects in upgrading through a collaborative institutional framework. For upgrading practice, it recommends a Tenure-Infrastructure-Livelihoods (T-I-L) nexus model to upgrading. An approach that is multisectoral, integrated, synergistic, and addresses both physical and human deprivations of the urban poor, and is deemed to bring greater impact and sustainability of upgrading efforts. The policy implications being the need to significantly transform existing policy and legal frameworks and upgrading strategies to embrace the T-I-L nexus approach for synergy, wholeness, and optimum use of scarce resources. Globally, this contributes to the SDGs especially the global goal of making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable by 2030 and nationally, it contributes to the aspirations of Kenya’s Vision 2030 and current development agenda four, especially on affordable housing.

The Maasai community has been known to be a pastoral community from time in memorial. Today, this is fast changing. Urbanization has fast caught up with the traditional lifestyle of the Maasai community. With pastoral land diminishing on a daily basis, the livelihood of the Maasai households has thus been affected. Most of them have been found to be lost in between culture and urbanization. The purpose of this study was to establish the impact of urbanization on the livelihood of the Maasai community in Ngong Ward, Kajiado County. The study explored ways in which changing land use and tenure coupled with rapid population growth had affected the livelihood of the Maasai households in Ngong Ward, Kajiado County. Further to this, the study also sought to find out the socio-economic and environmental impacts of urbanization and also established the coping mechanisms the Maasai‟s in Ngong Ward had adopted in response to urbanization. This study used cluster sampling and systematic random sampling research design to get the sample population. The use of several research instruments which included; household questionnaires, interview schedule with key informants, observation schedule that was enhanced by the use of photography and a document analysis guide was employed. Cluster sampling and systematic random sampling approach was adopted to identify the households. In total 70 Maasai households participated in this study. The quantitative data generated by questionnaires was analyzed by the use of SPSS 17 while the qualitative data generated from the interview schedules, observation and from secondary sources of data was analyzed through content analysis. Analyzed data was then summarized into frequencies and percentages and presented in tables, bar charts and figures. Findings of the study revealed that Ngong Ward was experiencing rapid urbanization due to its proximity to Nairobi County that had seen it emerge as a dormitory for the urban labour force. Rapid urbanization has led to the increase in demand for land leading to increased land subdivisions in the ward. This has led to changing land use and land tenures that has negatively impacted on the traditional Maasai livelihood of pastoralism. Though urbanization was seen as contributing to conservation efforts within Ngong Ward vi environmental pollution was seen as the most visible negative impact of urbanization in the ward. Socio-economically urbanization was seen as having a positive contribution to the Maasai livelihood. Many Maasai households had diversified their livelihoods and had opted into new livelihoods as a result of the urban sprawl in Ngong Ward. The study recommends that there is need to undertake an integrated urban planning framework for the ward and other emerging urban towns which incorporates the aspect of urban zoning as way of protecting local communities. Prevalence of employments should be given to local communities by organizations in urban towns to help provide sustainable livelihood strategies for the local communities. While adopting the aspect of planning the government should set regulations that limit very small subdivisions in lands set aside for agro-pastoralism. In Ngong Ward there is need for an infrastructural upgrade that should take into consideration of the increasing population. The study also recommends that community participation should be integrated in all development projects that are meant to benefit the Maasai households.

Mukuru Kwa Ruben informal settlement is located within the industrial area of Nairobi County. It is characterized by poor dilapidated housing exacerbated by poor drainage conditions and flooding in the area. According to the 2019 census projections, Mukuru kwa Ruben has a population of 527,526. This study aimed at developing a framework to enhance adaptive capacity of communities at the Mukuru kwa Ruben informal settlement to flooding. The study objectives entailed: To determine the drivers and impacts of flooding in Mukuru kwa Ruben, to identify the coping strategies to flood risks, establish their challenges and opportunities in Mukuru kwa Ruben and to develop strategies that will enhance Mukuru kwa Ruben adaptive capacity to flood risk. The study started by reviewing relevant literature on flood vulnerability in urban areas and most specifically in informal settlements of Nairobi. Rainfall data was obtained from Kenya Metrological Department for the period 1985-2017 and various flood management policies and strategies were critically reviewed. Household questionnaires, observation checklists and Key Informant Interview guides were used to collect data from the community. The data collection process was undertaken, followed by the analysis of the data collected. The methods of analyses used for this study entailed: content analysis, trend analysis and desktop reviews. The study findings show that flooding in Mukuru kwa Reuben isn’t necessarily caused by heavy down pour of rainfall but ineffective structural and non-structural measures that if addressed can enhance the adaptive capacity of the community to flood risks. It was also evident that residents of Mukuru kwa Ruben have put more premium on structural adaptation measures that are externally facilitated to soft adaptation measures that can easily be conducted by the community members. Shortcomings in the legislation, policies and strategies on urban settlement flooding were highlighted and appropriate means to tighten the loose ends proposed. The study therefore recommends Integral community stakeholders should conduct mass sensitization on effective low cost adaptive strategies to floods in Mukuru kwa Ruben, form Mukuru kwa Ruben residents association so as to have a representative at the Nairobi disaster committee to represent their plight and relook implementation of flood management strategies especially in urban informal settlements.

Strategic alliance is flourishing in the hospitality industry. However, the pace of research has not kept up with this evolving phenomenon. Past studies on alliances focused mainly on manufacturing and high technology industries and predominately in Western countries. There has been little attempt to explain and understand the strategic alliances formed in the hospitality industry in Kenya. The objective of the study was to establish the motivation for the formation of strategic alliance and to establish the factors that determine the success rate in strategic alliances by the Sarova Group of Hotels. The research methodology used was a case study. The study sought to have a thorough understanding of the phenomenon from the perspective of Sarova Group of Hotels. The data was gathered through interviews with three respondents who were involved in the formation and management of the alliance. Content analysis was used to analyze the information gathered. The findings revealed that SGH realized that they could not cost cut their way into growth and prosperity, because there is a limit to how much you can grow earnings by improving margins. As such, alliance was seen as one of solution for accessing those capabilities. The alliance was formed with an aim of entering the two properties Saltlick Game Lodge and Taita Hills Game lodge into an alliance with Sarova Group of Hotels. The findings of this study revealed that the success rate of alliance formation is found to be positively impacted by pre and post alliance formation factors. The study also revealed the motive that lead to the formation of strategic alliance: transaction-cost motives; resource-based motives; strategic motivations with regard to competitive position of the firm; learning objectives; and motives relating to risk reduction, new market entry, and first-mover advantage. The research findings show that the highest ranked motive of strategic alliance are “knowledge sharing; cooperative learning and embedded skills”, followed by “improving performance. This fact leads to some interesting findings with the lowest ranked being “adjusting to environmental changes”, followed by “reduced financial and political risk”, and followed by “entering new markets”. The major challenges faced by the alliance are; conflict management among the employees who were not ready for change, differences in target market, image, culture, pace of work and management styles. The study recommends that organizations need to adopt strategic alliances as a policy to strengthen their competitiveness and increase their efficiencies. For hotels which do not have the experience of strategic alliance formation, understanding the motives for alliance formation found in this study may arouse their appreciation of adopting alliances as one of their business strategies and help them enjoy the benefits which alliance may provide.

ABSTRACT

The study was conducted with the objective o f finding out the factors that determine brand loyalty while buying tooth paste, and to find out the most important of these indicators, the study was undertaken in the Westland’s area o f Nairobi A sample o f 200 consumers was targeted to answer the questionnaire and a response rate o f 70% was achieved. A recruitmentguide was used to determine the loyal customers. The primary data was collected using a semi-structured questionnaire, and were analysed using frequency distribution, mean scores and standard deviation. Ranking of factors was also done. The data presentations were made using tables. The study findings revealed that there are many factors that customers consider important in making decision o f which toothpaste to buy determine. Some of these factors were Prevent tooth cavities. Fights bad breath. Reduce gum bleeding, Cleans between teeth. Cleans between teeth. Keep fighting germs, prevent exposed root cavities, strengthen weak tooth enamel, prevent gums inflammation, Remove stains. Remove stains, Prevent tartar. Whitens the teeth Ranking of these factors was later done to determine the most important factor. The ranking revealed that the most important factor that is mostly considered to be that of preventing tooth cavities the research was conducted in only in an urban setting and for that reason it would be wise for a similar research to be done in rural areas so as to compare the findings. This would give the findings a more generalized opinion on the whole issue.