One billion people (32 percent) of the world’s urban population live in deplorable living conditions in informal settlements, according to estimates by the United Nations. In Kenya, they estimate to be at 56 percent (and the figure is projected to grow. There is, therefore a pressing need for action. Slum upgrading is seen as the current best practice in addressing this challenge. However, upgrading has its challenges. This study sought to investigate this strategy in Kenya to make recommendations on how its policies and programs can be better designed and implemented for maximum impact and sustainability. Studies have shown that upgrading has improved living conditions and quality of life in informal settlements. However, it has sometimes failed to achieve the intended purpose. Part of the challenge lies in the compartmentalization of upgrading interventions along sectoral lines which make it less impactful. There is a need for linked up approaches where synergies can be leveraged and tradeoffs minimized to enhance the impact and sustainability of upgrading efforts. However crosssectoral linkages in the interventions have received limited attention. This study contributes to this knowledge gap by investigating the nexus of slum upgrading interventions, specifically, interventions of tenure security, infrastructure, and livelihoods as well as their institutional dynamics. The inadequacy of these elements underpins poverty and deprivation, thus the proliferation of informal settlements in the urban space. Although there is growing literature on various aspects of these; there is limited research on their interconnections. Understanding these links and their institutional dynamics are critical for policy and implementation of upgrading programs. This study’s conceptual framework builds on existing theories on tenure, infrastructure and livelihoods to conceptualize a multi-sectoral linked up approach to upgrading comprising these three essential elements. The study was undertaken in Eldoret town located in western Kenya within East Africa. A multi-case study design comprising Huruma, Munyaka, and Kamkunji settlements and a mixed-method approach of both qualitative ( interpretivist) and quantitative (positivist) techniques were used for data collection, analysis and hypothesis testing. Findings showed a limiting sectoral approach, neglect of livelihoods but a linkage in tenure security, infrastructure, and livelihoods improvements in informal settlements upgrading. The study thus recommends a multisector integrated approach that incorporates both physical and human aspects in upgrading through a collaborative institutional framework. For upgrading practice, it recommends a Tenure-Infrastructure-Livelihoods (T-I-L) nexus model to upgrading. An approach that is multisectoral, integrated, synergistic, and addresses both physical and human deprivations of the urban poor, and is deemed to bring greater impact and sustainability of upgrading efforts. The policy implications being the need to significantly transform existing policy and legal frameworks and upgrading strategies to embrace the T-I-L nexus approach for synergy, wholeness, and optimum use of scarce resources. Globally, this contributes to the SDGs especially the global goal of making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable by 2030 and nationally, it contributes to the aspirations of Kenya’s Vision 2030 and current development agenda four, especially on affordable housing.

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