Low crop yields due to erratic rainfall and deteriorating soil fertility in smallholder farmers’ fields of Sub-Saharan Africa have prompted a quest for more resource-efficient production practices. In-situ water harvesting technologies have been proposed as climate-smart agriculture coping mechanisms to alleviate these problems, however, their full potential has not been realized. A study was undertaken to evaluate selected in-situ water harvesting technologies and fertilizer on nutrients uptake, use efficiency, and yield of maize and beans at Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) in Katumani, Machakos County for two seasons; short rain (SR) 2019 and long rain (LR) 2020. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with a split-split plot arrangement, replicated three times with in-situ rainwater harvesting technologies as the main plots, fertilizer inputs as the split plots, and cropping systems as the split-split plots. In-situ rainwater harvesting technologies comprised: Zai pits, Ngolo pits, contour furrows, and conventional tillage. Fertilizer inputs included: Di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) (18:46:0) fertilizer, goat manure, a mixture of DAP + goat manure and control. Cropping systems were: sole maize, sole beans, and maize-bean intercrop. Data was collected on soil nutrient status, soil moisture content, yield, nutrient uptake, and use efficiency. The data were subjected to analysis of variance and mean differences determined at p ≤ 0.05 significance level using GenStat software 15th Edition. During the SR 2019, soil moisture, maize, and beans yields, nutrient (N and P) uptake and uses efficiency were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased by in-situ rainwater harvesting technologies, fertilizer types, and cropping systems. Overall soil moisture content was higher in Zai pits (27.3 cm3 cm-3 ) followed by contour furrows (22.6 cm3 cm-3 ), Ngolo pits (20.8 cm3 cm-3 ) and lowest in conventional tillage (19.1 cm3 cm-3 ). Ngolo pits recorded higher maize and beans yields of 4.5 and 1.6 t ha-1 and above-ground biomass of 7.43 and 1.49 t ha-1 , respectively. Application of 100 kg ha-1 DAP increased maize and beans grain yield by 44.9 and 62.3%, and 58.2 and 56.2% in maize and beans above-ground biomass; respectively, compared to control. The highest N, P, and K uptake in maize grain were 67.8, 48.2 and 24.9 kg ha-1 and 47.2, 14.5, and 64.5 kg ha-1 in stover, respectively, recorded under Ngolo pits, whereas the lowest N, P and K contents in grain were 19.5, 25.7, and 9.5 kg ha-1 and 19.3, 5.37 and 16.8 kg ha-1 in Stover, respectively recorded under conventional tillage treatment. Higher N and P use efficiency of 39.1 and 40.1 kg grain per kg N and P ha-1 , respectively, were realized under Ngolo pits treated with 100 kg ha-1 DAP fertilizer. In the LR 2020, the application of 100 kg ha-1 DAP resulted in a 71.4% and 56% maize grain and biomass increase compared to control. Intercropping maize and beans increased grain yield significantly (p ≤ 0.05) by 10.3 and 29.4% compared to sole maize and sole beans. N, P and K contents were highest under Ngolo pits following application of 100 kg ha-1 DAP. Maize and beans subjected to application of 100 kg ha-1 DAP under Ngolo pits recorded the highest N and P use efficiency at 21.1 and 26.4 kg grain kg N and P ha-1 . The results of the study show that yield response to in-situ water harvesting technologies and fertilizer was influenced by soil moisture availability, N and P uptake, and use efficiency. Ngolo pits in combination with fertilizer performed better compared to conventional tillage under no fertilizer inputs. The results demonstrate the potential of integrating Ngolo pits and DAP fertilizer at the rate of 100 kg ha-1 in improving the yield of maize and beans and resource use efficiency in semi-arid areas. Key words: In-situ rainwater harvesting technologies, Ngolo pits, Zai pits, Nutrient uptake, Nutrient use efficiency

Boswellia sacra is a frankincense-producing tree found in the Arabian Peninsula that includes Oman and southern Somaliland (Northern Somalia). In Somaliland, it is mainly distributed in the Sanaag region including Cel Afweyn where many families depend on its value chain for a living. There is a high global demand for frankincense gums and resin products due to its medicinal, cultural and cosmetic importance leading to overexploitation of existing stands, leading to failure of trees to regenerate attributed to excessive tapping on tree barks causing damage that increases pest and disease infestation. The establishment of the species is hindered by the poor seed germination rate as well as grazing of young seedlings by both wildlife and livestock. This study sought to address the decrease in B. sacra numbers through regeneration via tissue culture and avail information on genetic diversity of two B. sacra populations in Af yare Dawl-dawl and Exdad in Somaliland for conservation and germplasm enhancement. Seed viability was determined by germination rate and tetrazolium tests, which revealed 4.15 % germination rate and 3.3% viability. These values were low but comparable to previously reported percentages of less than 10%, due to lack of viable embryos attributed to self-incompatibility within the species and high tapping frequency. Clonal propagation using tissue culture applied leaf and axillary bud explants for direct and indirect in-vitro regeneration using plant growth regulators, such as TDZ, BAP, NAA, in efforts to develop a micropropagation protocol for mass propagation. Direct invitro regeneration did not produce any regenerants while indirect regeneration produced callus on MS media containing 5 µm TDZ. Somatic embryogenesis was initiated in MS media containing 1 µm BAP+ 0.25 µm IAA, where shoot regenerants were produced. Genetic diversity determined using morphological and molecular markers to establish diversity within and between germplasm to enhance breeding programs. Morphological characterization of B. sacra genotypes from Exdad and Af Yare Dawl-dawl had no significant (p>0.05) differences in height, height to iv branching, number of stems and tree bottom swelling, however, stem type was strongly correlated to height. Hierarchical cluster analysis of principle components extracted from morphological data revealed two main clusters each with two sub-clusters with genotypes from both regions distributed within these clusters, thereby showing high similarity. Molecular characterization was done on Af Yare Dawl-dawl genotypes using SRAP markers and they revealed very low heterozygosity, He=0.053, indicative of very low genetic diversity. PCoA analysis of pairwise genetic distance matrix led to formation of three major clusters with 35.14%, 11.42% and 9.08% variation, indicating existence of three major groups of genotypes with different parentage. This variation indicates that genotypes from the different clusters can be used as progenitors for hybridization and domestication purposes. Low genetic diversity observed calls for urgent conservation measures of the tree species as well as introductions from other areas to enhance the germplasm found in Af Yare Dawl-dawl. Breeding programs for enriching genetic diversity in the study area should be initiated since the current population is faced with the threat of extinction should a sudden environmental change occur. Sustainable frankincense harvesting practices should be enforced to ensure sustainable exploitation of this important resource

Preserving road network requires a coordinated approach for good performance and efficient movement of goods and services. The road construction materials and design have great influence on future road conditions and maintenance scenarios. Weather changes and increase in traffic loads have exposed pavements to major distresses such as rutting, potholes, fatigue cracking, and temperature cracking. These forms of pavement failure cause traffic congestion, loss of man hour, increase in wear and tear of the vehicle and increase in road accidents. There is loss of money in frequent road repairs, vehicle repairs and treatment to the injured persons. Therefore, there is need to increase the load-bearing capacities of road pavements. The aim of this study was to investigate the performance of sisal-plastic modified asphalt concrete for road pavements. The properties of modified gap graded asphalt concrete was evaluated through characterization of asphalt concrete mixes modified using sisal fibre and waste plastics. Sisal fibre and plastic wastes were used as asphalt concrete stabilizers and modifiers respectively to enhance stability against bitumen drain down, bleeding and cracking. Clean waste plastics were cut into small sizes so as to pass through 2-3 mm sieve using shredding machine. The aggregate used in preparation of gap graded asphalt (GGA) were sizes 20-6mm for stone matrix asphalt (SMA) concrete and 12-6mm for open graded asphalt (OGA) concrete. The respective aggregate mix was heated and the waste plastics effectively coated over the aggregate. Sisal fibre was cut into 5 mm long threads, treated using sodium hydroxide solution and mixed with hot bitumen. The waste plastic coated aggregate was mixed with the mixture of treated sisal fibre and bitumen. Sisal fibre treated in 0.5N solution of sodium hydroxide makes sisal fibre become less porous with high density thus making more rigid asphalt concrete mix. The treatment improves the adhesion due to increase in surface tension and surface roughness. The asphalt concrete mix samples were analyzed for various engineering properties to assess their suitability for road pavement construction. The samples were subjected to different performance tests, namely, Marshall Test, drain down test and indirect tensile strength test. Using the Marshall procedure, the optimum additive contents were determined as 0.3% for sisal fibre and 5% for waste plastics in asphalt concrete mixes respectively. The Optimum Binder Content (OBC) values determined were 5.5% and 6.5% for open graded asphalt (OGA) and stone matrix asphalt (SMA) respectively. The stability test result values for both gap graded asphalt (GGA) concrete were 11.8kN and 12.8kN when modified with sisal fibre and waste plastics respectively. However, when sisal and plastics were both used, the stability values recorded were 13.6kN and 12.9kN for sisal-plastic modified OGA and sisal-plastic modified SMA respectively. The tensile strength test value determined was 1.23MPa for both sisal-plastic modified gap graded asphalt concrete. The tensile strength ratio was 99.9% while bitumen drain down value determined was 0% for both sisal-plastic modified gap graded asphalt concrete. A mathematical model was developed to predict the tensile strength of sisal-plastic modified asphalt concrete. The model was found to be adequate with 97.5% confidence level. A model road pavement consisting of control section and sisal-plastic modified were constructed. There was no bleeding, rutting, cracking or aggregate loss observed on modified

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is an important fruit in Kenya for domestic and export markets. However, farmers attain low yields and suffer significant post-harvest losses. Physiological disorders, among them jelly seed, contribute to about 30-40% of post-harvest losses by reducing the marketability of fruits. Optimum yields, fruit quality at harvest and postharvest longevity of mango fruits require proper nutrient management. Some of the physiological disorders that contribute to postharvest losses in mango are attributed to poor calcium nutrition. A study was conducted at Karurumo in Embu County, Eastern Kenya during seasons 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 using Van Dyke cultivar with the following objectives: (1) To determine the effect of varied calcium sources, rates and timing of application on yield of mango fruits; (2) To determine the effect of varied calcium sources, rates and timing of application on jelly seed incidence, post-harvest quality and shelf life of mango fruits; (3) To determine the effect of pre and post-harvest applications of calcium chloride on the quality and shelf life of physiologically mature mango fruits. A randomised complete block design with a split-split plot arrangement replicated three times was used to achieve objectives 1 and 2. Calcium was supplied as calcium nitrate, easygro® and calcium chloride at concentrations of 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0% or 0% (control) at three different times (fruit set, 30 days after fruit set and 30 days to physiological maturity). For objective 1, fruits were harvested at physiological maturity and fruit length, breadth, number of fruits, fruit weight, total weight, fruit retention percentage and fruit tissue calcium concentration were determined. For objective 2, a sample of physiologically mature fruits was taken and ripened in ambient conditions for determination of jelly seed occurrence, fruit weight and calcium distribution in the exocarp, mesocarp, endocarp and cotyledon. Additionally, samples of mature fruits were taken from each treatment for determination of total titratable acidity, total soluble solids, peel colour and peel firmness at harvest and after 12 days of storage under ambient conditions (25±2C, 75-80% RH), using standard protocols. Additionally, untrained panelists were used to score the ripened fruits for selected sensory quality attributes. Objective 3 was achieved by laying out a factorial experiment in a randomized complete block design with a split plot arrangement, replicated three times. Calcium chloride at 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5% or 0% (control) was sprayed on fruits at maturity or 15 days later. Another set of mature fruits was immersed in calcium chloride (0.5%, 1.0% or 1.5% or 0%) for 10 (ten) minutes. The fruits were then stored in ambient conditions and evaluated for selected shelf life indicators and sensory quality characteristics at an interval of two days for an eight days storage period. Peel firmness, total titratable acidity, total soluble solids, flesh colour, beta carotene, and percentage change in fruit weight, carbon dioxide and ethylene evolution rates were assessed. Results indicated that calcium sprayed fruits had higher length, weight, breadth, fruit number, total weight of fruits/tree, retention percentage and calcium content than unsprayed fruits. Calcium chloride (2.0%) sprayed at fruit set was the most effective in enhancing the mean fruit weight (346.3 g and 316.4 g), and the mean total weight of fruits/tree (63,723g and 39,138g) in both seasons respectively. There was a direct correlation between calcium concentration and fruit length (r=0.56 and r=0.81), fruit weight (r=0.34 and r=0.73), fruit breadth (r=0.79 and r=0.88), number of fruits (r=0.86 and r=0.59), fruit retention percentage (r=0.52 and r=0.62) and total weight of fruits (r=0.75 and r=0.68) in both seasons respectively. Application of calcium at fruit set increased calcium content in fruits more than application at later stages of fruit development. Application of calcium chloride, 2.0%, at fruit set stage reported the lowest average jelly seed score in season 1 (1.2) and season 2 (1.2). A significant negative correlation between fruit weight (r = -0.55, r = -0.52), calcium content in the exocarp (r = -0.56, r = -0.49), mesocarp (r = -0.52, r = -0.76), endocarp (r= -0.76, r = -0.66) and jelly seed incidence occurrence was demonstrated in both seasons respectively. Fruits sprayed with calcium chloride (2.0%) at fruit set maintained higher peel firmness (4.83 N, 4.77 N), titratable acidity (1.29%, 1.27%), peel hue angle (67.9, 67.2) and total soluble solids (10.47 o Brix, 9.10 o Brix) than all other treatments in both seasons respectively. Calcium chloride application improved peel colour appearance while calcium nitrate and easygro® led to a deteriorated peel colour appearance. Further, high rates of all sources of calcium led to a deterioration in taste of fruits. Immersion of fruits in calcium chloride (1.5 %) at maturity registered a higher peel firmness (10.6 N, 10.3 N), retained flesh colour (37.45, 36.78), highest TSS (14, 13.8), TTA (0.72%, 0.70%) and higher color appearance scores than the rest of the treatments in both seasons respectively. Fruits sprayed with calcium chloride (1.5%) at maturity registered the lowest amount of carbon dioxide (30.7 ml/kg/hr) and ethylene (1.5 ml/kg/hr). Post-harvest immersion had negative effects on the pulp flavor and increased shriveling of fruits. Spraying of calcium chloride (2.0%) at fruit set gave the highest yield, suppressed jelly seed occurrence, maintained fruit shelf life and improved organoleptic attributes. Calcium applied at fruit set gave better results in the studied parameters than those sprayed later implying that calcium should be applied at early stages of fruit development. Additionally, fruits immersed in calcium chloride (1.5%) enhanced fruit shelf life. However, for good flavor and taste, rate of 1.0% are recommended when fruits are treated by immersion in calcium chloride. This study further demonstrated that calcium is available to the fruit particularly when applied by immersion rather than spraying.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is ranked as the third most important food crop by production globally, after rice and wheat. Several biotic (diseases, pests) and abiotic (unfavorable climatic conditions) factors affects its production. Maize lethal necrosis (MLN) disease outbreak within East Africa threatens production of maize. Information on interactions of viruses causing MLN with plant parasitic nematodes is lacking. This study was carried out to determine i) the effect interaction of of plant parasitic nematodes with viruses causing MLN on disease development in maize fields and ii) the effect of lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) on MLN disease development in the greenhouse. For the field study, four counties in Kenya were visited, farms selected at random, MLN scored and both maize leaf and soil samples collected and analyzed for presence of viruses causing MLN disease and for parasitic nematodes. Snowball sampling or chain-referral sampling technique was used to sample MLN infected farms across the selected regions. Variance analysis was used to measure significant differences (P< 0.05) in MLN disease incidence and severity due to interaction between viruses and nematode populations. In the greenhouse study, two maize varieties, were used H614D and Emph 1101. Variety H614D is known to be susceptible to both MLN and Pratylenchus spp. whereas maize variety Emph 1101 is susceptible to MLN but resistant to Pratylenchus nematodes. The two maize varieties were subjected to three distinct treatments: single inoculation with MCMV and SCMV; combined MCMV + SCMV inoculation; the third treatment was the addition of Pratylenchus nematodes to the previous two treatments. Disease severity and incidence were recorded weekly over a period of two months. xiii Survey results indicated no significant effect of combined infestation of parasitic nematodes (Pratylenchus spp., Tylenchus spp., Meloidogyne spp. and Helicotylenchus spp.,) on MLN disease severity in the field. However, there was significant effect of Pratylenchus to MLN severity in the greenhouse experiment. The development of MLN disease in maize varieties Emph 1101 and H614D infected with Pratylenchus spp. nematodes was studied under a greenhouse experiment. MLN disease severity was higher in H614D than in Emph 1101. Plants inoculated with MLN+Pratylenchusrecorded a significant difference across the two varieties on area under disease progress curve (AUDPC). There is need for nematodes management even though the field experiment indicated no significant effect of parasitic nematodes on MLN disease developement. There is also need for an open field study to evaluate the effect of Pratylenchus spp. on the development of MLN disease.

Farming as a source of income for rural households has failed to solely sustain livelihoods. Consequently, there has always been a need for diversification into off-farm activities and which often is not a panacea. Livelihood diversification is seen as a coping strategy for most rural households, although there is limited empirical evidence that shows if' and even why' the households diversify. Furthermore, little is known about the effect of diversification on agricultural production and household income. This study examines the factors influencing livelihood diversification and its effects on agricultural production and household income in Nyamira County, Kenya. Cross-sectional data were collected through semi-structured questionnaires involving 120 households. The first objective of the study was to assess the factors that influence the choice of different livelihood strategies in the study area; the second was to assess the effect of livelihood diversification on agricultural production while the third was to determine the contribution of off-farm income on the total household income of residents in the study area. Multi-stage sampling technique was used whereas the sample size was determined by the use of proportionate to size approach. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the collected data. Seven livelihood strategies adopted in the study area were identified. The most popular off-farm livelihood strategy was casual labour in the agricultural sector and the least was rents. Poisson regression results suggest that; average years of schooling of other household members, number of household members with secondary education, time taken to the water source (P=0.002), access to extension services (P=0.036), group membership (P=0.001) and electricity access (P=0.000) were the factors that influenced the number of livelihood strategies a household selected. Off-farm income accounting for about 44 percent of household income had an effect on agricultural production through the purchase of inputs used in the farm. In conclusion, both farm and off-farm sectors of the rural economy are important in sustaining livelihoods thus efforts towards enhancing both sectors should be put in place. Also, farming households in the study area need to diversify their livelihood sources to increase their cash earnings and to well utilize the existing production resources. To enhance livelihood diversification, the government, both the National and County government, should improve rural infrastructure in terms of provision of electricity and construction of tap water points near homes of people especially in hilly areas of the County.

Admixtures are used to improve the properties of concrete or mortar to make them more suitable to work by hand or for other purposes such as saving mechanical energy. Retarding admixtures are used to slow the rate of setting of concrete. By slowing the initial setting time, the concrete mixture can stay in its fresh mix state longer before it gets to its hardened form. Retarders can be formed by organic and inorganic material. The organic material consists of unrefined CaO, K2O, MgO, AL2O3, salts of lignosulfonic acids, hydroxycarboxylic acids, and carbohydrates. Agave sisalana Perrine, popularly known as sisal is a commercially used fiber yielding plant. Cement concrete production especially in hot climate experience a lot of challenges from mixing, transporting and placing of concrete because of the accelerated setting of cement concrete due to high temperatures. Workability is compromised to a large extend and there is need to prolong the setting time allow for execution of the concreting activities. The rapid heat generation from large concrete pours can also lead to cracks in the concrete structure. This results in the need to slow the rate of concreting thereby causing costly delays. Retarders go a long way in slowing down the hydration process hence reduce the heat of hydration. The study investigated the suitability of sisal juice as a retarder to influence the properties of hardened concrete at a lower cost. This research implored the use of experimental design. The study used quantitative techniques of data analysis to analyze the test results of different experiments. Descriptive statistics including means, cross-tabulation, frequencies and percentages was used for comparison and the results presented in form of frequency tables, line graphs and bar charts for easier understanding and interpretation. SJE was used as a retarder to influence the properties of fresh and hardened concrete. Sisal juice extract was used as a partial replacement of water at different dosages and in the concrete mix. A total of 84 concrete cubes were produced in 7 sets of 12no. specimen each. One set was made with the control mix which had zero SJE content. The remaining sets had varying dosages of SJE namely 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30%. Twelve beam specimens measuring 150x150x530mm were also casted. Specimens were subjected to Compressive strength tests as per BS EN 12390–3:2009, setting time test as per BS EN 196-3:1995 and slump test as per BS EN 12359–2:2009. To establish the effect SJE on strength of concrete, compressive strength was tested at 7, 14, 28 and 56 days while flexural strength

This study evaluated the morphological and anatomical responses of below-ground parts of Pennisetum mezianum, Digitaria macroblephara,and Themeda triandra to moisture variation in the semi-arid rangelands of South Eastern Kenya. Bud and root functional traits, including average root diameter (RD), root tissue density (RTD), specific root length (SRL), percent root dry matter content (PRDM), and non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) were determined.Soil moisture content below the ground surface was monitored to determine its relationship with the aforementioned parameters. Decline in soil moisture caused significant (p<0.05) decrease in bud size, PRDM, and increase in NSC for all three grass species. Generally, RTD increased with increase in soil moisture deficit in all three grass species. For SRL, it significantly increased with a decrease in soil moisture content in D. macroblephara. There was no significant variation in the average number of buds and RD, with corresponding variation in soil moisture content. Pennisetum mezianum had significantly (p<0.05) higher number of buds, largest bud sizes, largest RD, lowest SRL, lowest RTD, and least amount of NSC content. Themeda triandra and D. macroblephara had a narrow root diameter, high SRL, high RTD, and a high NSC content. These patterns indicate that the three grass species had developed diverse strategies to withstand water deficit conditions, with P. mezianum employing a conservative strategy, while T. triandra and D. macroblephara employ a timely utilization strategy. Further research should be conducted on more range grass species over multiple seasons to better understand adaptive mechanisms of range grass species to enable us to predict plant community change because of climate change.

In today’s business world, many corporations have followed diverse strategies in governing and monitoring tools to address the developing competitiveness and economic needs. Commercial banks play a key strategic role in the development of the financial sector and are the primary drivers of the economic growth of the country. Hence, their performance is of imperative performance within any economy. This study therefore sought to establish the effects of audit quality on the financial performance of commercial banks in Kenya. The study will significantly contribute to auditing functions to financial management to foster quality service delivery. It will additionally add to the existing body of knowledge as well as create bases of literature review for future researchers. This research study was anchored on the following theories; lending credibility theory, stakeholder theory, and contingency theory. The study employed cross-sectional research design, with a target population of the 42 registered and licensed commercial banks in Kenya. Within these banks, the researcher targeted the officers within the audit department and the audit committees. Simple random sampling was employed and thus the sample size was 199 respondents. The study used questionnaires to collect primary data. The data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics with the help of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics included percentages, means and standard deviations represented by way of tables and figures. Inferential statistics will include correlation and regression analysis to measure the relationship between the study variables. Descriptive statistics included percentages, means and standard deviations represented by way of tables and figures. Inferential statistics included correlation and regression analysis to measure the relationship between the study variables. The findings indicated an R2 of 0.632 implying that all the predictor variables explained 63 percent of variations in financial performance. The research concluded that Audit quality is an audit that is both systematic and an objective evaluation of financial accounts. Audit quality is achieved when performed by a competent auditor with the professional experience. Audit quality is important to a company because when the accounts are found to be in good order, it is a demonstration of sound financial position and performance and this predisposes the company to investors and other venture partners. The main drivers of audit quality espoused by the findings of the current study are compliance with auditing standards and auditor independence. The study recommended that organizations would be assured of audit quality by creating an environment that promotes auditor independence, In addition, audit staff should be given opportunities to practice so that they can gain the required experience and thus improve on the quality of their work.

There is growing global recognition that women play multiple roles both within violent extremist organizations and in preventing and countering violent extremism. However, very little is known about women and violent extremism in the context of Kenya. Through focus group discussions with women in affected communities and individual interviews with returnees and other stakeholders – including government officials, donors and civil society – this study aimed to gain insights into the socio-cultural, economic and political issues compelling women to join the terror groups, the roles that women play and trends in relation to women involvement in terror organizations in Kenya and Nigeria and the gendered impacts of involvement in terror groups. This study shows that there is a complex set of dynamics – including drivers, impacts and responses – influencing how and when women become involved in terror organization in Kenya in their communities. These dynamics operate at different levels societal, community, family and personal, are specific to the particular contexts in which they develop, and are fluid across time and space. While there is little evidence of women from Kenya perpetrating acts of violent extremism, women are actively involved in non-combative roles such as recruiting, gathering intelligence, facilitating funding, radicalizing their children, and providing the invisible support structure for violent extremists, such as supplying food, shelter and medical care for fighters. The findings demonstrate that terror groupings have multiple, and often mutually reinforcing, effects on the lives of women, their families and communities in Kenya. All the returnees interviewed for this research had experienced sexual violence in Al-Shabaab camps; there were also some incidents of sexual violence reported during counter-terrorism (CT) raids. Women have suffered physical, psychological and emotional harm as a result of violent extremism, with consequent physical health problems. Many women live in perpetual fear of terrorist attacks, their children’s safety and the hard security approach of some CT interventions, with some respondents feeling stigmatized, harassed and profiled by security agents because of their Muslim attire or because they looked Somali.