Abstract

Heat stress is a major stressor of dairy livestock production nearly everywhere in the globe, and it is only going to get worse as the world gets warmer. The aim of the study was to map areas where dairy cattle are susceptible to experiencing heat stress under current and future projected climatic conditions in Uganda. The specific objectives included (i) Investigate the trend of heat stress for dairy cattle during the current and future periods, (ii) Map areas and dairy cattle are at risk of exposure to heat stress under current and future climate conditions, and (iii) Determine adaptation strategies and options for the impact of heat stress across the dairy value chain. The study follows a transdisciplinary approach by leveraging geoinformation techniques. Using ERA-Interim reanalysis dataset for the historical period (1981-2010) and for two periods in the future (2021-2050 and 2071-2100) climate predictions of ten global circulation models (GCMs) under Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5 emission scenarios. This study demonstrates a significant rise in the historical prevalence of severe heat stress in dairy cattle (p<0.05) over time in 38 percent of the country. Much of the significant rise is concentrated in the country's northern and central regions. Under future climate conditions, simulations under both RCP scenarios predicted that the country would gradually deteriorate to increasingly severe conditions. On average, milk decline due to heat stress is anticipated to be 2.3 and 15.6 kg milk/year/dairy cow for 2021-2050 and 2071-2100 respectively based on RCP 8.5. Even though dairy farmers are already adapting to heat stress, future heat stress management techniques will necessitate informed climate smart technologies aiming at embedding resilience in current dairy production systems. The findings of this study are concerning, mainly because they show that the effects of heat stress have a substantial effect on Uganda's dairy production systems. The results can be utilized to assist stakeholders in the livestock industry in creating policies that are supported by data and planning, as well as to direct resource allocation in the industry toward the development of adaptable and flexible production systems that can survive future heat stress.

C++ feels like a new language. That is, I can express my ideas more clearly, more simply, and more directly in C++11 than I could in C++98. Furthermore, the resulting programs are better checked by the compiler and run faster. In this book, I aim for completeness. I describe every language feature and standard-library component that a professional programmer is likely to need. For each, I provide: • Rationale: What kinds of problems is it designed to help solve? What principles underlie the design? What are the fundamental limitations? • Specification: What is its definition? The level of detail is chosen for the expert programmer; the aspiring language lawyer can follow the many references to the ISO standard. • Examples: How can it be used well by itself and in combination with other features? What are the key techniques and idioms? What are the implications for maintainability and performance? The use of C++ has changed dramatically over the years and so has the language itself. From the point of view of a programmer, most of the changes have been improvements. The current ISO standard C++ (ISO/IEC 14882-2011, usually called C++11) is simply a far better tool for writing quality software than were previous versions. How is it a better tool? What kinds of programming styles and techniques does modern C++ support? What language and standard-library features support those techniques? What are the basic building blocks of elegant, correct, maintainable, and efficient C++ code? Those are the key questions answered by this book. Many answers are not the same as you would find with 1985, 1995, or 2005 vintage C++: progress happens. C++ is a general-purpose programming language emphasizing the design and use of type-rich, lightweight abstractions. It is particularly suited for resource-constrained applications, such as those found in software infrastructures. C++ rewards the programmer who takes the time to master

Abstract

Increasing human populations and changes in land use have brought increased competition for space and resources between people and wildlife in the Amboseli Ecosystem. Among the large mammal species, elephants are one of the most vulnerable to land use change due to their home range and seasonal migrations. The ensuing interactions due to sharing resources are frequently negative and the individuals involved progressively develop negative attitudes towards elephants, viewing them as a risk to their survival. The aim of this research was to assess some of the factors driving human-elephant conflict in Imbirikani Group Ranch for improved management and coexistence of elephants and local communities. The specific drivers analyzed were land use and cover (LULC) changes as well as human perceptions toward human-elephant coexistence. LULC changes were analyzed in a 32-year epoch from 1981 to 2019 from Landsat images for 1987, 1999, 2013 and 2019. The data was analyzed through supervised classification with QGIS 3.12 using the maximum likelihood classification algorithm. Percentages of land area were computed to make comparisons of the changes in LULC over time. In addition, a multistage sampling design was applied whereby the study area was divided into strata based on the administrative sub-locations. Household survey was conducted on 320 sampled households selected through a multistage sampling design and primary data gathered by interviewing selected households through semi-structured questionnaires. The households were interviewed on the held attitudes and perceptions on the nature and extent of human elephant conflicts. Further, field visits and observatory data were gathered to unveil farms and property damages caused by Elephants. Focus group discussions were also carried out to gain more insights on available resources mapping and human elephant conflict. Collected data were summarized by descriptive statistics including frequencies and arithmetic means and results presented based on thematic areas such as types of conflict, seasonality of attacks, crops affected, and costs of HEC incidences. A logistic regression model was generated to assess explanatory power of variables while Pearson’s chi-squared tests were computed to establish associations between hypothesized independent variables and the dependent variable of attitudes toward elephant conservation. Shrublands experienced the highest change with a steady decrease of almost 30% over the study period. Bareland increased by 16%. Grassland increased by 7.51%. Woodlands experienced a decline of 11.2%. Irrigated agriculture showed an increase of 12.48%. Crop raiding was the most prevailing form of HEC with the behaviour of raiding elephants being described as habitual from specific elephant groups and nocturnal. The type of crop grown was the most significant predictor for HEC. Education level, gender and location had a significant influence on perceptions and attitudes toward human-elephant coexistence (p = 0.0132, p = 0.0037 and p > 0.0001, respectively). Age (p = 0.1377) and type of livelihood (p = 0.1272) had no significant relationship with the participants’ perceptions and attitudes. Additionally, 61% believed elephants were beneficial but 82% felt bad about free roaming wildlife while the majority, 61%, had a negative attitude toward wildlife authorities. Understanding the spatiotemporal distribution of conflicts, cost implications and nature of crop raiding behaviour in addition to community knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions on the same, should be integrated into management decisions to guide planning of conservation interventions. Integrated spatial planning and land use zoning should be executed in collaboration with the community. Moreover, elephant repellent crops should be grown in HEC hotspot areas and mechanisms to disincentivize agricultural expansion in wildlife habitats and movement corridors established for improved conflict mitigation.

Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks are a subclass of denial of service (DoS) attacks. A DDoS attack involves multiple connected online devices, collectively known as a botnet, which are used to overwhelm a target website with fake traffic. In June 2022 Cloudflare reported detecting and mitigating a 26 million RPS DDoS attack on an unnamed client’s website. This report was made by the Hadess About Trend Methods for DDos and data comes from various sources such as: Cloud Provider, Dark Web , Deep Web Forums, Sellers and etc.

Chilies contain an active component known as capsaicin. It is hydrophobic and is the main capsaicinoid. Due to this component, chilies have obtained certain bioactive components such as antioxidants, phenolic and anti-microbial properties. Based on the mentioned characteristics, chilies exhibit bio pesticide characteristics which can be used to control pest and diseases in crops.In this study, four varieties of chilies were used, including habanero, bird’s eye, cayenne and bullet chilies. This was to assess the potential utilization of capsaicin in control of late blight fungal disease and bacteria speck in tomatoes To determine the capsaicin content in the four varieties, extraction of capsaicin from both ovendried and fresh chilies was conducted using three different solvents at different amounts namely 100ml, 150ml and 200ml which included, methanol 99%, a mixture of methanol 99% and acetone and ethanol 99%. Evaluation of the antioxidant and total phenolic composition of capsaicin from the four varieties was analyzed using the Dipheny1-1-picrtyl-hydrazyl (DPPH) method and the absorbance at λmax 760nm measured on a spectrophotometer respectively. Determination of the sensitivity of capsaicin on late blight and bacterial speck in tomatoes was conducted using the agar dilution method. Moreover, determination of the antimicrobial properties of capsaicin from the four varieties of chilies was conducted by examining the minimum inhibitory concentration and the minimum bactericidal concentration. From extraction using different solvents at different amounts, the ideal solvent was said to be ethanol at 200ml giving an ideal extraction ratio of 1:10. Fresh habanero, bird’s eye, cayenne and bullet chilies had the highest amount of capsaicin respectively at an amount of 23.09 mg/g, 12.36mg/g, 7.37mg/g and 3.80mg/g respectively. Oven died habanero, bird’s eye, cayenne and bullet chilies had the highest amount of capsaicin respectively at an amount of 16.84mg/g, 9.60mg/g, 6.39mg/g and 3.21mg/g respectively. Therefore, fresh chilies had a higher amount of capsaicin than oven dried chilies. A positive correlation was observed between the amount of capsaicin present in the chili varieties and the bioactive components available in the chilies. Total phenolic was highest in both fresh and oven- dried habanero, bird’s eye, cayenne and bullet chilies respectively, having xi fresh chilies with a higher total phenolic than oven-dried chilies. Total phenolic ranged between 2923mg/g- 352mg/g in fresh chilies and 2274.5mg/g – 117mg/g in oven-dried chilies. Similarly, to total phenolic, there was a correlation between the amount of capsaicin in a variety and antioxidant activity in the same. Antioxidant activity was highest in both fresh and ovendried habanero, bird’s eye, cayenne and bullet chilies respectively, having fresh chilies with a higher antioxidant activity than oven-dried chilies. Antioxidant activity ranged between 50%- 86% in fresh chilies and 46%-74% in oven-dried chilies. Capsaicin from fresh chilies had a higher inhibition than oven-dried chilies. Bacterial speck was more susceptible to capsaicin than late blight across all varieties. Zone of inhibition for bacterial speck ranged between 0.96cm – 2.48cm in fresh chilies and 0.63cm – 1.95cm in ovendried chili having habanero with highest zone of inhibition and bullet chili the lowest. Zone of inhibition for late blight ranged between 0.68cm – 2.22cm in fresh chilies and 0.56cm – 1.75cm in oven-dried chili having habanero with highest zone of inhibition and bullet chili the lowest as well. Capsaicin from fresh chilies had a higher MBC than oven-dried chilies. Late blight was more susceptible to the capsaicin than bacterial speck across all varieties. Minimum bactericidal concentration for late blight ranged between 0.01% - 0.18% in the first tube and 0.21% - 0.53% in the second tube incubate, using fresh chilies and 0.02% - 0.20 in the first tube and 0.29% - 0.55% in the second tube incubated, using oven-dried chili having habanero with highest minimum bactericidal concentration and bullet chili the lowest. Minimum bactericidal concentration for bacterial speck ranged between 0.01% - 0.19% in the first tube and 0.26% - 0.55% in the second tube incubate, using fresh chilies and 0.02% - 0.21% in the first tube and 0.30% - 0.61% in the second tube incubated, using oven-dried chili having habanero with highest minimum bactericidal concentration and bullet chili the lowest.as well. From the study, capsaicin from habanero exhibited the most preferred characteristics of bio pesticides from the four varieties tested. A positive correlation between amount of capsaicin and the efficiency of the bio active components characteristics as a bio pesticide was observed. Thus, the higher the amount of capsaicin, the higher the efficacy of capsaicin as a bio pesticide. More study of the efficacy of capsaicin in diseases in tomatoes under in vivo environment is recommended to evaluate the influence of environmental conditions in the bio pesticide properties

Heat stress is considered as one of the factors altering animal productivity and reproductive performances by impairing animal physiology due to the imbalance between heat accumulation and heat loss. Moringa oleifera (MO) is one of the best antioxidant plants because of its numerous bioactive compounds. It is reported to alleviate damages caused by oxidative stress and improve animal productivity and reproductive performances. The general objective of this study was to investigate the pharmacology of MO extract in the management of heat stress disturbances on reproductive performances and oxidative stress in rabbit does. Fresh MO leaves, seeds and barks were collected from 2 to 3 years old MO trees of Bukavu city of South Kivu province in Democratic Republic of Congo and Masii village of Machackos County in Kenya and 300 g of each dried powder was mixed with 700 ml of distilled water. Qualitative and quantitative assessment of bioactive compounds including flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, phenols, glycosides, saponins and terpenoids were performed following standard methods while the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay was used to evaluate the antioxidant activity. Thereafter, twenty-eight rabbit does were randomly distributed to 4 treatments groups (with 7 animals per group) and assigned for 80 days to different room temperatures, relative humidity, temperature humidity index (THI) and of Moringa oleifera aqueous seed extract (MOASE) as follows: group 1 (T0): ambient temperature (18–24°C), 59 ±0.48%, 23.6 ±1.52; group 2 (T1): 35–36°C, 64 ±0.6%, 32.5 ±0.7, 100 mg of MOASE; group 3 (T2): 35–36°C, 64 ±0.6%, 32.5 ±0.7, 200 mg of MOASE; group 4 (T3): 35–36°C, 64 ±0.6%, 32.5 ±0.7. In each rabbit cage, electrical heaters were used from 08:00 h to 16:00 h following with the exposition to the room air temperature as in the control group. The selected range of temperature, relative humidity and THI were chosen according to results observed in the pilot study. During the experiment period, food consumption, body weight and body weight gain as well as rectal and skin temperature were measured daily. Reproductive functions including mating method, number of services per conception, self’fur removal, gestation length, litter size, kit body weight, the weight of the litter, milk intake and milk efficiency were recorded or calculated. All animals were sacrificed after 80 days and data referring to blood parameters, oxidative stress biomarkers, weight of organs, hormones, kidney and ovary histology were collected. Results xviii indicate the presence of glycosides in all the plant parts but the absence of terpenoids in seeds from DRC, phenols and flavonoids in barks from both countries. The highest extraction yield was in leaves of MO from DR Congo and seeds from Kenya. The DPPH showed that MO leaf and seed extracts have appreciable and concentration-dependent increase in scavenging effect. A significant decrease (P<0.05) was observed in the skin and rectal temperatures, weight of lung, liver, kidney, hematological parameters such as mean cell volume, white blood cells, lymphocytes, biochemical parameters such as creatinine, urea, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate amino-transferase as well as oxidative stress biomarkers like kidney lipid peroxidation in rabbits from T1 and T2 compared to those of T3. However, a significant increase (P<0.05) in ovary weight, hemoglobin, red blood cells, glucose, total protein as well as kidney protein, catalase, superoxidase dismutase, reduced glutathione and lipid peroxidation was observed in animals of T1 and T2 compared to those of T3. Regarding reproductive parameters, a significative increase (P<0.05) body weight and body weight gain of both pregnant and lactating female rabbit’s, fur removal and litter weight, litter size, kit body weight and kit weight gain, weekly milk production and daily milk efficiency and estradiol, luteinizing hormone, follicular stimulating hormone and cortisol contents in rabbits from T1 and T2 compared to those of T3. A significant decrease (P<0.05) in the number of services per conception, milk intake and progesterone content in animals of T1 and T2 compared to those of T3 was noted. Kidney histology of animals of T1 and T3 indicated cortical renal parenchyma with fibroblast proliferation in the interstitial tissues and a tubular epithelial cell swelling while ovary tissue of T1, T2 and T3 animals showed structural alterations. It was concluded that Moringa oleifera seeds possess antioxidant activities which could be attributed to some phytochemical components observed in Moringa. These bioactive compounds, when Moringa oleifera aqueous seed extract is administrated at 200mg/kg b.w., minimize the adverse effects of heat stress inducing physiological and reproductive impairment in female rabbits. Other parts of Moringa oleifera (pods, stembark) on heat stress disturbances in rabbits should be studied using organic solvents while the potential toxicity of Moringa oleifera aqueous seed extract should be checked.

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) is a key vegetable in Kenya, listed as second most economically important in the horticultural industry. The production of tomatoes has greatly been affected by bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum. Losses to 100% have been reported in both greenhouse and open fields growing conditions. Most of the bacterial wilt management strategies in place have not provided effective, safe and sustainable solution. Therefore, this study contributes, to sustainable tomato production by the use of Trichoderma species as an alternative method of managing bacterial wilt. The study determined antagonistic activity of Trichoderma species from different habitats against Ralstonia solanacearum in vitro and evaluated their efficacy in managing bacterial wilt of tomato at field level. Trichoderma species were isolated and identified from different soil habitats of Karura forest, compost, manure, coffee, and tomato fields. The dominant Trichoderma species were Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma asperellum and antagonistic check performed using dual plate technique against Ralstonia solanacearum. The antagonistic ability of the Trichoderma species was determined by measuring the growth radius as a percentage. The field experiments were further conducted in a randomized complete design (RCBD) replicated four times in three greenhouses at Naivasha, Mirera area. The treatments included; isolated Trichoderma asperellum, isolated Trichoderma harzianum, combination of isolated Trichoderma asperellum and Trichoderma harzianum, plots with no applications, commercial Trichoderma harzianum, commercial Trichoderma asperellum, combination of commercial Trichoderma harzianum and commercial Trichoderma asperellum. The isolated Trichoderma species were mass multiplied by growing in sterilized sorghum grains. The already infested greenhouse soil was re-inoculated with isolated Ralstonia solanacearum to ensure uniform pathogen levels. This was isolated from infected tomato plants and introduced one week earlier at 35 ml per pot and properly mixed to ensure uniformity. Trichoderma application was done at the transplanting stage of a greenhouse tomato variety Anna F1, and two more applications after every two weeks. The bacterial wilt incidence and severity assessment was then done weekly and yield data recorded based on physiological maturity of the tomato crops. The laboratory in vitro work indicated that the habitats with high organic matter and fewer disturbances in terms of cultivation had high Trichoderma presence. The habitats had a xii total of 42 Trichoderma harzianum isolates and nine Trichoderma asperellum. Trichoderma harzianum were 15 and four Trichoderma asperellum from forest habitat while three Trichoderma asperellum and 10 Trichoderma harzianum from compost habitat. The other habitats also had similar Trichoderma isolates with low frequency. Trichoderma asperellum and Trichoderma harzianum from the forest and compost habitats had the highest percentage inhibition in vitro. In greenhouse conditions, treatments with Trichoderma asperellum or Trichoderma harzianum at P ≤ 0.05 had significant reduction of bacterial wilt incidence and severity as compared to the plots with no applications done. The Trichoderma species combinations treatments had no significant difference from the single Trichoderma species applications at P ≤ 0.05. The incidence and severity of Ralstonia solanacearum were greatly reduced hence better yields in the Trichoderma treated plots. The results indicated that Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma asperellum were efficient in managing bacterial wilt in tomatoes an adoptable alternative management solution to bacterial wilt in tomatoes.

Globally, effective communication channels have played an imperative role in the dissemination of critical information to farmers. However, dismal attention has been given to the access of such information communication channels in disseminating information to farmers in the developing world, especially information on Fall Army Worms (FAW) pest attacks. This study, sought to assess the effectiveness of information communication channels used in information dissemination on Fall Army Worms in maize production amongst farmers in Lugari-Kakamega County, Kenya. It was guided by three objectives: (i) To determine socio-demographic factors that influence information access on control of Fall Army Worms by maize farmers; (ii) To analyze farmer’s perception on access of mass media channels disseminating Fall Army Worm information; and (iii) To assess farmer’s perception on access of inter-personal communication channels disseminating Fall Army Worm information. The study employed a descriptive cross-sectional research design guided by the diffusion of innovations theory.The study applied a purposive sampling technique to identify participant farmers. Data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Qualitative and quantitative data was collected through key informant’s interviews, pre-tested questionnaires and focused group discussions. The study arrived at three conclusions. First, social economic factors play key roles in farmers’ access to information concerning FAW through Television and mobile phones. Improving access to education could increase farmer access to agriculture information such as the management of FAW. Equally, increasing access to wage employment can improve farmer’s access to information concerning the management of FAW. The second conclusion is that radio, phone messages and television were the most effective communication channels for FAW information. There should be policy support towards access to radio, phone and television coverage in order to increase farmer’s access to FAW management practices. Lastly, interpersonal communication channels such as agro dealers and peers play key roles in transmitting information for the management of FAW. Therefore, farmer groups and interaction should be encouraged. xi The study therefore recommends the County government to enhance future dissemination of FAW information via radio, for mass media channels and fellow farmers, for interpersonal channels in both local dialects and Kiswahili languages. Additionally, there is need for re-tooling of extension agents, lead farmers, seed companies and agro-input-dealers on modern methods of FAW control and management